3.1 - Global Actors

Question 1

Nation

Answer 1

Refers to groups of people claiming common bonds based on culture, language and history

Question 2

State

Answer 2

The central actor in global politics, with a permanent population, defined territory and recognised sovereignty

Question 3

Sovereignty

Answer 3

Legitimate or widely recognised ability to exercise effective control of a territory within recognised borders

Question 4

Power

Answer 4

The ability of one global actor to influence another

Question 5

Global Governance

Answer 5

Institutions, roles, norms and legal arrangements that seek to facilitate cooperation and manage relations between states

Question 6

Multilateralism

Answer 6

System of coordinating relations between three or more global actors, usually in the pursuit of specific objectives

Question 7

Globalisation

Answer 7

An acceleration and intensification of exchanges of goods, services, labour and capital, which promotes global interdependence, and has been facilitated by rapid changes in communication and technology

Question 8

Nation vs State

Answer 8

• Nations are a cultural entity while states are a political entity
• Nations must be homogenous while states may or may not be homogenous
• Nations have no ability for representation at a global level while states are sovereign so can gain membership to regional groupings
• Nations do not have a military while states do

Question 9

Aims of States

Answer 9

• Maintain sovereignty
• Ensure national security
• Uphold national interests – economic prosperity, regional partnership, international standing

Question 10

Roles of States

Answer 10

• Maintain an army
• Maintain diplomatic relations
• Represent the state in IGOs

Question 11

Security

Answer 11

Traditionally refers to the protection of state borders and the maintenance of sovereignty through the use of military power; however, this has involved to include softer forms of security, including access to resources and protection of the environment

Question 12

Military Power

Answer 12

• Includes military capacity and ability to use military
  o Capacity includes amount spent, number of serving officials, commitment and morale, training, and relationship between military and state
• Use of military power:
  o Threatened use of force
  o Military exercises
  o Advertised improvements
  o Testing of arsenal
  o Actual use of force

Question 13

Economic Power

Answer 13

• A state’s ability to influence the actions of another through finance and trade
• Can be assessed by:
  o GDP/per capita
  o Reliance on imports
  o Economic growth
  o Budget surplus
• Use of economic power:
  o Tariffs
  o Loans
  o Foreign aid
  o Sanctions
  o Direct foreign investment (TNCs)

Question 14

Diplomatic Power

Answer 14

• Power accrued to states through their relationships with others in the form of alliances or alignments
• Allows states to influence others through discussion and negotiation
• Use of diplomatic power:
  o Membership in IGOs, alliances or regional groupings
  o Negotiation of trade agreements
  o Summit diplomacy
  o Public denouncements

Question 15

Cultural Power

Answer 15

• A desirable and transportable culture that can achieve aims not achieved through military and pollical means
• Linked to soft power and may influence regional relationships and international standing
• Can be used to win hearts and minds
• Use of cultural power:
  o Exhibitions
  o Educational programs
  o Exchanges
  o Broadcasting – TV, film, music
  o Gifts to nations
  o Promotion of ideas

Question 16

Political Power

Answer 16

• Use of a state’s internal political machinery to exert influence over the actions of others
• Use of political power:
  o Passing laws
  o Setting policy
  o Executive orders
  o Speeches

Question 17

Hard Power

Answer 17

Refers to power exercised through coercion, inducement or threats
o Includes military and economic power

Question 18

Soft Power

Answer 18

Refers to the ability to shape the actions of others through attraction, uncoercive means, morals and legitimacy

Question 19

Contested Borders

Answer 19

• Situations where part or all of a state’s territory is claimed by another state or group of people
• Therefore, when there is no widely recognised borders, a state does not have effective control so sovereignty is not achieved
• Border disputes weaken the ability of governments to make decisions and policy over the territory

Question 20

Contested Borders Case Study: Senkaku Islands

Answer 20

• Dispute involves 5 core islands and 3 ‘rocks’
• Islands have been controlled by Japan since 1895, but between 1945 and 1972 were controlled by the U.S.
• Islands are claimed by China, Taiwan and Japan
  o The Chinese claim is based on historical grounds and a statement in the Potsdam declaration
  o The Japanese claim is based on terra nullius and that China and Taiwan only began to claim the islands after oil was reported
• Territory contains rich fishing grounds and may contain large oil reserves
• Recent developments:
  o Air Defence Identification Zone created by China (2013) requiring aircraft to report flight plans and obey directions by Chinese Defence, otherwise ‘emergency defence measures’ would be activated
  o 3 days later, U.S. sends 2x B-52 bombers through region but no response by China
  o U.S. reaffirms support to Japan
  o 2016 – China sends 300 fishing boats and 15 coast guard ships into region
  o Japan has built new military bases nearby
  o China has allowed the coast guard to fire on foreign ships
  o China has since sailed a submarine and aircraft carrier through the region
• No party has maintained effective control so sovereignty has been undermined

Question 21

Regional Groupings

Answer 21

• Supernational organisations established based on geographical location
• States join by choice
• Examples: European Union, NATO, Arab League, African League, ASEAN

Question 22

European Union

Answer 22

• Evolved from European Coal and Steel Community
  o Formed in 1958
  o 6 members – Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemburg, West Germany, France and Italy
  o Aimed to prevent future war by making countries economically interdependent
• Currently has 27 members
• Member states are ‘masters of treaties’ as they must agree to pool their sovereignty and the EU cannot expand its powers without a treaty
• ‘Upward transfer of sovereignty’ as sovereignty is moved to a higher body
• EU common policies exist on fishing, agriculture, trade and regional development
• Common policies on foreign and security policy are being developed
• States must follow EU directives
• EU law takes supremacy over domestic law
• EU free market for goods, people, services and capital
• Eurozone (monetary union) created in 1999 and includes 19 members
• Schengen Area – no passport controls
• EU has permanent diplomatic missions and is represented at IGO level
• Structure:
  o European Commission – one commissioner from each state; proposes legislation and policy, and represents EU at external negotiations
  o Council of Ministers – foreign/European minister from each state; coordinates both EU foreign policy and domestic policy
  o European Council – head of state/government from each state; sets high level policy, EU strategy and budget
  o European Parliament – 751 members; holds legislative power, supervises EU institutions
  o European Court of Justice – one judge from each state; gives legal judgements

Question 23

Regional Groupings Case Study: Hungary

Answer 23

• Refugees
  o 2015 – built a barrier to prevent influx of refugees and voted against plans to relocate refugees into EU
  o Issue referred to ECJ in 2017
  o 2020 – ECJ finds against Hungary
  o European Parliament attempts to initiate Article 7 (suspend rights of Hungary); however, this was unsuccessful
  o 2018 – Hungary makes it illegal to help refugees  ECJ ruled that law violated EU law so was invalid
• LGBTQ+ Rights
  o 2020 – ended legal recognition of trans people
  o 2021 – banned gay people from featuring in school educational materials or TV programs for U18s  European Commission issues Hungary with an infringement notice
  o EU suspended pandemic recovery payments = €5.8 bn
  o Nov 2022 – reforms not implemented so payments continued to be withheld

Question 24

Impact of Brexit on UK Sovereignty

Answer 24

Negative Impact of Brexit on UK Sovereignty:
* EU retains control over UK trade with Northern Ireland
* UK loses representation in EU institutions, but UK still has to follow EU trade rules
* Some UK products can no longer be exported
* UK pays £39bn to EU
* UK lose prosperity and security from being members of EU

Positive Impact of Brexit on UK Sovereignty:
* UK regain control over migration, trade, agriculture, fishing and regional development
* UK chose to leave EU and were able to do so

Question 25

Regional Groupings Case Study:
Brexit

Answer 25

Post Referendum
* 2017 – Negotiations begin on:
o How much the UK owes
o What happens to the Northern Ireland border
o What happens to UK citizens living in the EU
o What happens to EU citizens living in the UK
* Deal struck with EU rejected twice by MPs
* 31 Jan 2020 – UK leaves EU and enters 11 month transition period
o Trade deal signed on 24 December

Initial Withdrawal Agreement
* Transition period – UK loses representation in EU institutions
* UK pays EU £39bn in divorce bill
* UK citizens in EU and EU citizens in UK retain residency
* Northern Ireland backstop – single customs union between UK and EU
o Therefore, UK cannot implement new trade deals that involve removing tariffs

Final Agreement
* Changes to Northern Ireland border:
o Custom and regulatory border created between Britain and NI
o Goods from Britain to NI have to pay EU import taxes
o UK now able to sign own trade agreements

Trade Deal
* 3 sticking points:
o EU worried that UK would provide financial aid to own firms
o UK concerned about who could fish in its own waters
o How arrangement would be enforced
* Final details:
o Prevented tariffs or quotas being introduced in short term
o Some UK goods no longer able to be exported to EU
o EU members require licence to fish in UK waters

Question 26

Issues Requiring Multilateral Resolution

Answer 26

• Challenges sovereignty through:
  o Issue itself – states lose effective control, and can lose legitimacy by causing the issue, and can have recognised borders disrupted
  o Resolution to the issue – states need to cooperate and may need to compromise

Question 27

Climate Change as an Issue Requiring Multilateral Resolution

Answer 27

o Rising sea levels disrupting recognised borders in island nations
o Natural disasters causing destruction of infrastructure and loss of life
o Cost of air pollution
o Cost of disaster recovery
* Loss of legitimacy for states causing climate change through high emissions, and states who are not acting to resolve issues
* States that do take strong action will have increased legitimacy
* States are not bound to take action on climate change so do not lose effective control

Question 28

Aims of United Nations

Answer 28

• Keep peace throughout the world
• Develop friendly relations between countries
• Work together to help people live better lives, to eliminate poverty, disease and illiteracy in the world, to stop environmental destruction and to encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms
• Be a centre for helping nations achieve these aims

Question 29

Roles of United Nations

Answer 29

• Peacekeeping
• Economic development
• Humanitarian assistance
• Publishing information
• Peace envoys and overseeing negotiations

Question 30

UN Bodies

Answer 30

• General Assembly:
  o Only body where all member states are represented
  o Each member has one vote
  o Resolutions are non-binding
  o Has control over budget
  o Elects members to S.C., and, with SC, elects judges to the ICJ
• Security Council:
  o Aim – maintain international peace and security
  o US, UK, Russia, France and China are permanent members with veto power
  o 10 non-permanent members elected by GA for 2 year terms
  o Security Council resolutions are binding
  o Can place embargos/sanctions or use military force
• Economic and Social Council:
  o Falls under authority of GA
  o Coordinates economic and social work of the UN
  o Can only issue recommendations and receive reports from specialised agencies
• International Court of Justice:
  o 15 judges elected
  o Decides on disputes between states
  o Participation is voluntary, but states are obligated to abide by decisions
  o Provides advisory opinions to UN organs

Question 31

Criticism of UN

Answer 31

• SC does not reflect today’s distribution of military or economic power
  o SC does not have geographic balance – no permanent members from Africa, South America or Oceania
  o Developing countries lack permanent membership (eg. Brazil, South Africa, India, Nigeria and Egypt)
• UN is under resourced compared to USA
• Lack of transparency
• Lack of permanent peacekeeping force
• The UN may not interfere in the domestic affairs of any country

Question 32

Limits to UN Effectiveness

Answer 32

• Lack of military:
  o UN relies on member states to deploy forces to UN missions
  o Missions lack specific equipment, intelligence, logistics, capabilities and specialised military preparation
• Funding:
  o States must provide at least 0.001% of GNI to the UN
  o No state can provide more than 22% of total UN funding
  o US are major funder – only state at 22% cap and provided $10bn in 2016
   Election of Trump  cut of UN budget by $1.3bn
  o States control where voluntary contributions are distributed  “ties the UN up in knots”

Question 33

UN Responsibility to Protect

Answer 33

• States have the primary responsibility to protect their citizens
• If states are unwilling to protect their citizens, the principle of non intervention yields to the responsibility to protect
• Impacts sovereignty:
  o Intervention in states  loss of effective control
  o Only allowed in instances when a state no longer protects own citizens  undermines legitimacy
• Principles for RTP to be enacted:
  o Just cause – must be a large scale loss of life or ethnic cleansing
  o Precautionary principles – right intention; last resort; proportional; reasonable prospects of success
  o Right authority – authorised by UNSC
  o Operational principles – clear objectives; common approach; limited force; appropriate rules of engagement; cooperation with humanitarian agencies

Question 34

UN Case Study: Myanmar

Answer 34

• Genocide of Rohingya may account to crimes against humanity
  o 700 protesters killed in 3 months
  o Thus, meets just cause threshold
• UNSC has adopted 10 statements but taken no substantive action
• Inevitability of veto by Russia and China  no draft resolution
  o China has condemned possibility for ‘one sided action’
• The Gambia has initiated a case in the ICJ accusing Myanmar of being in breach of the Genocide Convention
• It has been suggested that the structure of the UN needs to be reformed to ensure it achieves its aims
  o Non binding nature of GA limits it to public shaming

Question 35

UN Case Study: Yemen

Answer 35

• 6 years of conflict
• 2018 – 2021: UN Human Rights Council’s Group of Eminent Experts (GEE) documented war crimes and breaches of international law, therefore, UN obligated to act to protect population
• GEE also alleged Canada, France, Iran, UK, US may be complicit in conflict  mandate not renewed in 2021  surge in casualties and hostilities
• 2018 – Stockholm Agreement = ceasefire; however, this did not last
• UNSC placed sanctions in 2014, arms embargo in 2015, and resolution endorsing Stockholm Agreement in 2018
• 3 key mistakes of UN:
  o Unconditional legitimisation of interim government
  o Complete disarmament of Houthis
  o Demand for withdrawal of Houthis to pre-2014 positions

Question 36

UN Case Study: Tigray, Ethiopia

Answer 36

• Conflict between Tigray Defence Force and Ethiopian Defence Force caused by a shift from a federalist structure to a unitary structure (Tigray regional government lost power)
• Violations of international law – attacks on civilians, ethnic cleansing, use of child soldiers, forced displacement, therefore justifying use of RTP
• UNSC has called for urgent ceasefire but have not placed sanctions or embargos as China and Russia define problem as an internal problem for Ethiopia – likely to veto

Question 37

UN and Climate Change

Answer 37

• UN Framework Convention on Climate Change = supports global response to climate change
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change = provides objective and comprehensive scientific information on climate change, providing warnings to member states
• Sustainable Development Goals – Goal 13 focusses on climate action

Question 38

Paris Agreement

Answer 38

• First time all of the world’s states have had a single agreement for tackling climate change
• Deal included:
  o Peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible
  o Adaptation to respond to climate change
  o Finance – pledge for $100bn/year
  o Keep temperatures well below 2°C and endeavour to limit to 1.5°C
  o Achieve net zero emissions between 2050-2100
  o NDCs

Question 39

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)

Answer 39

• Each state to set and determine own contributions (NDC), to be reported on every 5 years
• Contributions are non binding, so states are politically encouraged rather than legally bound
• Varying degrees of ambition:
  o 9 states analysed by CAT are almost sufficient
  o 7 states analysed by CAT are critically insufficient
• Therefore, not ambitious enough to meet 2°, and no NDCs are 1.5° compatible = lack of UN influence
• Between 2020 and 2022, 27 countries increased their ambition

Question 40

Net Zero

Answer 40

• 88% of global emissions are covered by net zero targets (Nov 2022), up from 70% (May 2021)
• 13 countries have enshrined net zero in law
• Has led to some countries with a poor past record on climate change adopting net zero out of political pressure
• However;
  o Many targets are unclear in how they achieve net zero
  o Targets can distract from the need to reduce emissions in the short term
  o It has allowed some countries to ‘hide’ behind net zero targets
• CAT has determined that:
  o 6 states’ net zero targets are acceptable
  o 8 states’ net zero targets have no information on how they will be achieved
• Only 3 of the top 10 emitters have climate legislation to achieve net zero

Question 41

COP 27

Answer 41

• Created loss and damage fund → achieve UN aim of helping those impacted by climate change
• Did not make any agreement to phase out fossil fuels

Question 42

UN and Development:
Impact of Millennium Development Goals

Answer 42

• UN altered perception of what development is – not economic growth but quality of life
• Created coherence between global actors  unified agenda and increased effectiveness of interstate cooperation
• Acted as advice for governments
• Acted as framework for businesses and charities, and used by organisations for advocacy
• Increased transparency  greater accountability
• Accelerated rate of progress:
  o At least 21m extra lives saved, 2/3rds in Sub Saharan Africa
  o 471m extra people lifted out of poverty
  o 111m extra people completed primary school
• However, MDGs were less effective in improving water and sanitation

Question 43

UN and Development:
Sustainable Development Goals

Answer 43

• Created after end of MDGs in 2015
• Apply to both developing and developed states
• Increased consultation with stakeholders  more likely to implement goals
• Includes 17 goals with 169 targets; however, this makes it hard to prioritise
• Recognises interconnectedness of progress in different areas
• “Galvanise a global effort” – Sachs
• Funding:
  o Estimated to require $2-3tr per annum for 15 years to achieve all goals
  o Target for states to provide 0.7% of GNI – only 6 states met this in 2019

Question 44

UN and Development:
Effectiveness of Sustainable Development Goals

Answer 44

• Only 35/169 goals with data to measure progress
  o 6 goals on track
  o 5 goals going backwards
• Positive impacts:
  o 89% global electrification
  o 81% of births attended by a health worker
• However:
  o Slowdown in number of women in parliament – will take 40 years for equal representation to be achieved at current rates
  o Only 6% growth in renewable energy since 1990
  o Tuberculosis rates increased for first time since 2005
  o Greenhouse gas emissions set to increase 14%
  o Debt to GNI increased to 43% in Sub Saharan Africa
  o 85% of wetlands have been lost
  o At current rates, by 2030 1.6bn people will lack access to safe drinking water and 2.8bn will lack access to sanitation
  o 1/10 children engaged in child labour
  o 99% of urban population breathe polluted air
  o 1bn people live in slums
  o 65% rise in use of natural resources since 2000
  o 40k species at risk of extinction in next 10 years
  o 17m tonnes of plastic entered ocean in 2021
  o Loss of 10m ha of forest
  o 100m people forcibly displaced
  o Impacts of COVID-19:
   93m increase in extreme poverty
   Disaster related deaths rose 6 fold
   147m children missed at least 6mths of school instruction
   First rise in income inequality in a generation

Question 45

Aims of International Criminal Court (ICC)

Answer 45

• Ensure the worst perpetrators are held accountable for their crimes
• Serve as a court of last resort that can investigate, prosecute and punish the perpetrators of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes
• Assist national judiciaries in investigating and prosecuting the worst perpetrators, allowing states to be the first to investigate and prosecute
• Help promote international peace and security by deterring future would-be perpetrators

Question 46

Roles of International Criminal Court (ICC)

Answer 46

• Investigate alleged crimes
• Assist state judiciaries to investigate and prosecute
• Prosecute cases themselves
• Hold trials and issue declarations
• Sentence those convicted
• Hear and decide on appeals

Question 47

Jurisdiction of International Criminal Court (ICC)

Answer 47

• Prosecute individuals for crimes against humanity, genocide or war crime; and
• Acts after 1 July 2002; and
• If the accused is a national of a member state, the alleged crime took place in a member state, or the situation has been referred by the UN Security Council

Question 48

International Criminal Court (ICC) Relationship with UN

Answer 48

• ICC is legally independent from UN
• UNSC can refer situations to ICC that they would normally be unable to hear
• UNSC can require court to defer investigation – this has never been used for an active case
• ICC can use enforcement powers of UNSC
• ICC and UN exchange information and provide logistical support

Question 49

Outcomes from International Criminal Court (ICC)

Answer 49

• 50 people indicted
• 14 are fugitives yet to be tried
• 5 trials ongoing, and 1 in pre-trial
• 11 convictions (however, one was acquitted on appeal)

Question 50

Challenges to International Criminal Court

Answer 50

• Structural difficulties:
  o Dependent on voluntary contribution of states; has no police force/sheriff so cannot arrest
  o Only 2/5 of the P5 have signed and ratified
  o No major Asian power has joined ICC
• Legitimacy:
  o Accused of being a ‘tool of Western imperialism’
  o Accused of only investigating those from small, weak states
  o Disproportionate focus on Africa  Burundi, South Africa and Gambia leaving ICC (however, this was found illegitimate for SA)
  o US not a member – claims ‘insufficient checks and balances’ and ‘insufficient protection against politicised prosecutions’
  o Does not use jury trial nor does it prevent double jeopardy (trial for same crime twice)
  o Slowed peaceful transition of power between government
• Lack of resourcing
• Witness tampering and political interference
• Can only investigate cases where state is am member

Question 51

Aims of International Monetary Fund

Answer 51

• Promote international monetary cooperation
• Facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade, and to contribute thereby to the promotion and maintenance of high levels of employment and real income and to the development of the productive resources of all members as the primary objectives of economic policy
• Promote exchange stability
• Assist in the establishment of a multilateral system of payments … in the elimination of foreign exchange restrictions which hamper the growth of world trade
• Make resources available to members experiencing balance of payment difficulties

Question 52

Roles of International Monetary Fund

Answer 52

• Surveillance – IMF monitors member state policies and national, regional and global economic and financial developments  provide advice to member states about how to achieve economic stability, prevent financial crises and improve living standards and promote policies
• Lending – for when states are having balance of payments problems; 0% interest payments to low income states to promote development
• Technical advice and capacity building – work with states to modernise economic policies and institutions

Question 53

IMF Funding

Answer 53

• Member states must contribute a quota
• Voting rights are determined by the amount each state contributes

Question 54

IMF Conditionality

Answer 54

• Main source of IMF power is conditionality of loans
• Conditions ensure that states can repay, do not introduce policies that negatively impact the global economy, and ensure the money is used for the reason it was lent for
• Conditions usually are to support ideology
• Loans are paid in instalments  if conditions are not met, future instalments are withheld

Question 55

Impact of IMF on State Sovereignty

Answer 55

• States lose effective control and flexibility to create social and economic policies due to conditions attached to loans
• States lose legitimacy if they do not follow advice given by IMF

Question 56

Impact of IMF on Globalisation

Answer 56

• Elements of Washington Consensus:
  o Freer trade creates larger exchanges of goods and services
  o Foreign investment creates greater flows of capital
  o Low government borrowing ensures stability so increases interdependence

Question 57

IMF Case Study
Argentina

Answer 57

• 2018 – IMF lends Argentina $50bn
• Conditions – reduce budget deficit by 4.4%, increase tax, reduce government spending by cutting ministries, salaries and health/education programs 
  Inflation increased, GDP shrank -2.6% (2018), -2% (2019), poverty increased 50% and individuals/businesses took money out of Argentina
• 2020 – OMF helped restructure private loans  creation of 1.7m jobs and 35% increase to investment
• 2021 – economy grew 10% (rebound after COVID) and deficit reduced by 3.5%
• 2022 – IMF did not insist on austerity measures

Question 58

IMF Case Study:
Pakistan

Answer 58

• Pakistan experiencing high levels of external debt, political chaos, deteriorating security and 48 year high inflation
• Pakistan forced to use IMF for assistance as they were on the brink of insolvency and alternatives unable to assist  demonstrate IMF power
• Conditions of loan – tax raises, subsidy reductions on fuel, and floating of exchange rate

Question 59

IMF Case Study:
COVID-19

Answer 59

• IMF provided:
  o Emergency funding to 89 states
  o Short term liquidity line to assist developed states deal with balance of payments issues
  o Grants for debt relief to 29 states
  o Policy advice, including for a green recovery
  o 87/100 of these programs had low/no strings attached
• IMF influenced G20 to suspend debt repayments to 73 states  demonstrate IMF’s diplomatic power
• IMF created monetary cooperation with member states agreeing to lower interest rates
• IMF had $1tr in funds
• IMF also made attempts to set agenda:
  o Encouraged states to supply vaccines
  o Prevent further ruptures to global trade
  o Ensuring developing states can finance critical spending
• Outcomes:
  o Global inflation at 8.8% (2022), up from 3.5% (2017-19)
  o Developing states have lost 20% of income while developed states only lost 11%
  o Poverty increased 95m in 2020
  o 15% of low income states are in debt distress and 45% are at high risk of entering
  o Only 19.5% of Sub Saharan Africa has received vaccinations; 61% of developing states (other than SSA) have received vaccinations; while 75.2% of developed states have received vaccinations (August 2022)

Question 60

Aims of Catholic Church

Answer 60

• Compassion for marginalised people, especially refugees
• Peace and security
• Comprehensive environmental programs

Question 61

Power of Catholic Church

Answer 61

• Diplomatic Power:
  o 1.3 billion members (17% of global population)
  o Diplomatic relations with 183 states, second only to USA
  o Observer status in UN and WTO
  o Participant in UN conventions on population, women’s development, and disarmament
• Cultural Power – Significant media coverage, including social media influence
• Economic Power – $170bn in annual spending

Question 62

Catholic Church Case Study:
Climate Change

Answer 62

• Issued papal encyclical in lead up to Paris Convention outlining need to change, support developing countries and accelerate political responses
• Aim – improve environmental responses
• Power:
  o Responsible for Poland joining Paris agreement
  o Pope able to meet with largest fossil fuel companies to call for carbon pricing and low carbon technology
  o Church divested in fossil fuels
  o Able to influence voters
  o Criticised slow response from governments
  o Stated that developed states need to assist developing ones

Question 63

Catholic Church Case Study:
Refugees

Answer 63

• 2013 – Pope visited a Mediterranean island to lay a wreath in honour of those who drowned making the crossing
• Pope is son of Italian immigrants who moved to Argentina
• Aim – compassion for marginalised people, especially refugees
• Power:
  o Prompted Italian Government to implement ‘Mare Nostrum’ (rescue mission), which has saved over 150k refugees – however, this only lasted 1 year and lacked support from EU
  o Drew attention and awareness to issue
  o Calls for Church to house refugees
  o Influenced USA to accept more refugees during Obama Administration
  o However, did not address Rohingya refugee crisis when he visited Myanmar in 2017

Question 64

Aims of Amnesty International

Answer 64

• End grave abuses of human rights everywhere
  o Uses the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• Issues of focus – freedom of expression, women’s rights, death penalty, crimes against humanity, corporate accountability, arms, and refugees

Question 65

Roles of Amnesty International

Answer 65

• Campaigning
• Lobbying of governments
• Raising awareness
• Obtaining and publishing information
• Social media use

Question 66

Power of Amnesty International

Answer 66

• Independent → provides legitimacy
• Consultative status in UN and EU
• Most of its power comes from spreading information/awareness
• More effective in lobbying democratic states as public opinion influences government policy – Amnesty then tries to get democratic states to place pressure on non-democratic states

Question 67

Amnesty International Case Study:
Refugees in Australia

Answer 67

• Demands:
  o Abolish offshore detention and boat pushbacks
  o Commit to a regional approach to help refugees and asylum seekers
  o Increase humanitarian intake to 30k places/year
  o Improve the refugee sponsorship program
• Effectiveness (power):
  o Reduced costs for community sponsorship program from $19k to $8k
  o Increased public support by 5% for resettling refugees
  o End of temporary protection visas
  o New Zealand solution to resettle refugees
• Ineffectiveness (lack of power):
  o Refugee cap has not increased
  o Medivac repealed
  o Australia continues to refuse to accept illegal refugees

Question 68

Transnational Corporations

Answer 68

• A company whose operations and investments extend beyond the boundaries of the state in which it is registered
• Aims – maximise profits and returns to shareholders

Question 69

Aims of Philip Morris International

Answer 69

• Meet the expectations of adult smokers by providing innovative tobacco products
• Generate superior returns to shareholders
• Reduce the harm caused by tobacco through evidence based regulation and development of products with reduced risk
• Be a responsible corporate citizen

Question 70

Roles of Philip Morris International

Answer 70

• Product development
• Marketing
• Lobbying
• Research and development

Question 71

Power of Philip Morris International

Answer 71

• Has significant economic power – profit of $12.9bn, 69.6k employees, and a 15.65 market share
• Lack of power as despite legal action/threatened use, 17 countries have implemented plain packaging laws
  o Only Togo has cancelled a proposal due to lobbying by PMI
• Lack power as Australian TGA has refused to allow heated tobacco products, despite lobbying by PMI and Foundation for a Smoke Free World
• Lack power as WHO has warned against heated tobacco products
• However, has demonstrated power in that heated tobacco products are allowed in the USA and EU

Question 72

ICC Case Studies

Answer 72

• Dominic Ongwen – ex-child soldier convicted of 61 crimes in 202, sentenced to 25 years in prison - captured by US forces (who had prev. offered a reward for his arrest - criticism because he was a previous victim
• DRC - 3 convictions (Dylio, Katanga and Ntanganda) - investigation began in 2004 at request of DRC - first conviction Dylio = 2012
• Katanga = 2014 and Ntanganda = 2019 - 7 years b/w Ntaganda warrant and him handing himself in - committed further crimes during this time + living in plain sight
• Darfur, Sudan - warrant for arrest of Omar al-Bashir - not arrested despite travelling to other ICC member states incl. South Africa in 2015 where he escaped helped by SA govt (court attempted to arrest)
• Kenya - Kenyatta - ICC begun investigation themselves - Kenyatta elected president after being indicted - charges had to be withdrawn due to intimidation of witnesses
• Afghanistan - 2020 investigation commenced - US responded by imposing sanctions on ICC officials. President of Afghanistan asked for investigation to be paused b/c investigating themselves (acting as court of last resort). Post-Taliban takeover investigation recommenced but focused only on abuses by Taliban
• Palestine - ICC member despite not being a state. March 2021 ICC launch investigation - Israel indicates they will not cooperate