3.1 Chapter 1- Biological Molecules Flashcards
What is indirect evidence for evolution?
- All life on Earth shares a common chemistry. This is indirect evidence for evolution, as it suggests all life has a common ancestor.
- Despite the extensive variety of life, the cells of all living organisms contain only a few groups of carbon-based organic compounds that interact in similar ways.
Why is the biochemical basis of life similar?
- Based on carbon atoms- organic
- Contain versatile bonds that readily link with each other and form chains.
- Few other atoms attach to carbon.
Define a monomer
A small repeating unit from which polymers are made.
Define a polymer.
A chain of many monomers joined together by bonds. e.g. amino acids forming proteins with peptide bonds.
What must you remember to mention when talking about polymers?
The bonds e.g. glycosidic, phosphodiester
Define a condensation reaction.
The joining of 2 molecules/ monomers together forming a chemical bond and releasing water.
Define hydrolysis
The breaking of a chemical bond (between monomers) using a water molecule.
What are the monomers of carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides
What are the features of monosaccharides?
- Soluable
- Sweet tasting
- General formula (CH2O) n
- Reducing sugars
- e.g. glucose, galactose, fructose
What type of molecules are monosaccharides?
Hydrocarbons- made from only carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
What is the general formula of a monosaccharide?
(CH2O) n
What is another name for hexose?
Glucose
Name the each monosaccharides from 3 to 7 carbons.
3- triose
4- tetrose
5- pentose
6- hexose= glucose
7- heptose
What is the name for a bond between a monosaccharide?
Glycosidic bond
What are alpha and beta glucose?
Structural isomers
Draw alpha and beta glucose.
Answer on revision card.
Describe the test for reducing sugars and how it works.
- Dissolve the sample
- Add an equal volume of Benedicts reagent
- Heat to over 70°C
- If present, the solution will turn from blue to brick red
All monosaccharides are reducing sugars. Test works by reducing Cu2+ ions to Cu+ turning them from blue to red. High concentration means more red substrate.
What are the uses of carbohydrates?
- Used as respiratory substrate
- Form structural components in plasma membranes and cell walls
How disaccharides formed and broken?
Formed by the concentration reaction of two monosaccharides, forming a glycosidic bond and water.
Broken by hydrolysis requiring water.
What type of sugar are disaccharides?
Reducing or non-reducing sugars
What are the components of:
Maltose
Sucrose
Lactose
- Maltose- 2 alpha glucose- forms α1-4 glycosidic bond
- Sucrose- alpha glucose and fructose
- Lactose- alpha glucose and galactose
Complete the equation (written and formula):
2α glucose —>
2α glucose —> maltose + water
2C6H12O6 —> C12H22O11 + H2O
Describe the test for non-reducing sugars.
- Perform the test for reducing sugars make sure it’s negative
- Take new sample, dissolve and add an equal volume of HCl/ acid
- Boil/ heat to hydrolyse the disaccharide
- Add sodium hydrogen carbonate to neutralise. Test the solution is alkaline using indicator paper.
- Add Benedict’s reagent and heat over 70°
- They reducing sugar is present. The solution turns from blue to brick red. Red precipitate/ colour.
Draw glucose and how it forms into maltose
Answer on revision card
Remember to label α1-4 glycosidic bond
What type of test is Benedicts?
Semi quantitative
How can the Benedicts test be measured quantitatively?
- High concentration means more red substrate
- Measured by filtering, drying and finding the weight of the precipitate
- Can be measured using a colorimeter.
What is the colorimeter used to measure in Benedict’s/ in general?
Used to measure the colour change of the Benedict’s reagent test and therefore the concentration of reducing sugars.
Makes the test more quantitive.
In general measures the percentage absorption or transmission of a particular wavelength of light emitted by a solution
What do reducing sugars do to the Benedict’s solution ?
Reduce blue Cu2+ to red Cu+ forming a red precipitate.
How do you measure the Benedict’s test with a colorimeter and what results would you see?
- The Benedict’s solution is filtered to remove the red precipitate, leaving just the blue solution. The more glucose means the solution is lighter blue as the solution is more reduced
- The cuvette is filled 3/4 full of blue liquid and a separate cuvette is filled 3/4 full of distilled water
- The colorimeter is set to red and the water is placed inside to calibrate it to 0. The solution is then added and the percentage absorption is measued.
- The red light is absorbed by the blue as this is a complimentary colour, the less blue that means the more red light transmitted and less absorbed. This means more red precipitate was produced, and there was a great quantity of reducing sugar.
What would you do with the results from the colorimeter test of Benedict’s?
The results of the unknown solution will be used to plot a calibration curve At different glucose concentrations, which can then be used to find the glucose concentration of an unknown substance.
How are polysaccharides formed and what is their property?
Formed in the condensation reaction of many monosaccharide monomers, forming water and glycosidic bonds. Insoluble.
What can polysaccharides be hydrolysed into?
Hydrolyse into disaccharides or monosaccharides
Describe the structure of starch
Polysaccharide made of repeating units of alpha (α) glucose joined together by glycosidic bonds in a condensation reaction
Made of amylose (unbranched and coiled helical structure due to hydrogen bonds) and amylopectin (branched).
What is starch hydrolysed into by amylase and why?
Starch is hydrolysed into maltose by amylase.
This enables the maltose to be absorbed and transported around the body and enables it to be further hydrolysed into glucose for respiration as starch cannot be absorbed and is egested.
Describe starch’s purpose and how it suits it.
Storage of alpha glucose in plants, e.g. seeds.
- Insoluble- doesn’t affect water potential or osmosis
- Large- can’t cross cell membrane and leave cell
- Compact- coiled and branched, helical structure of amylose stores lots of glucose molecules in a small space
- Branched endings- more ends- fast enzyme action- easily hydrolysed for rapid glucose release due to branched ends of amylopectin meaning enzymes can attach and work simultaneously.
Describe the test for starch
Add two drops of iodine and see if the colour turns from brown orange to black blue
Describe the structure of glycogen
Polysaccharide polymer made of alpha (α) glucose monomers joined together in a condensation reaction to form glycosidic bonds. 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds. Shorter chained and more highly branched than starch. Similar structure to amylopectin.
What is glycogen used for and how does it suit its purpose?
Used for alpha glucose/carbohydrate storage in animals and bacteria. e.g. in the liver. Hydrolyses into glucose. Small amount of glycogen because main storage molecule in animals is fat.
- Insoluble- Doesn’t affect water potential or osmosis
- Compact- stores lots of glucose in a small space
- Highly branched- made of amylopectin, More ends to be acted on simultaneously by enzymes. More rapid as animals have a higher metabolic rate so quicker energy release.
Describe the structure of cellulose
- Polysaccharide with beta (β) glucose monomers
- Position of hydrogen and hydroxyl groups on carbon atom 1 inverted every other monomer
- Only 1-4 glycosidic bonds
- Straight unbranched chains, parallel to each other
- Joined together by hydrogen bond cross linkages to add strength- weak on their own but strong together
- Group to form strong, microfibrils and fibres
Describe the function of cellulose and how it suits that function
- Forms plant cell walls
- Provide structural support and rigidity to the plant cell
- Long straight chains linked together by many hydrogen bonds to form fibrils that provide strength
- The cell from bursting under osmosis and exerts an inward pressure to stop water influx
- Makes yourself turgid and rigid, creating a maximum surface area for photosynthesis
- Permeable to water- allows water movement
Describe the overall features of lipids
Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents
What are lipids roles/ what are they used for?
- Cell (plasma) membranes- help form bilayer
- Used in certain hormones and respiratory structures.
- Energy source- 2x energy as glucose and produces water
- Waterproofing- waxy cuticle and oil on the skin
- Electrical and heat insulation
- Protecting delicate organs
Describe how triglycerides are made and their structure.
- Made of one glycerol and three fatty acids
- Formed in a condensation reaction forming ester bonds and three molecules of water. Reversed by hydrolysis.
- A fatty acid is made of a carboxyl (COOH) and an R group
- Variation is found in the R group of fatty acids
Explain why triglycerides are insoluble.
The 3 fatty acid tails are hydrophobic.
Explain how triglycerides can vary.
- Vary in the R group of fatty acids.
- Saturated- no carbon to carbon double bonds- saturated by hydrogen
- Unsaturated- carbon to carbon double bonds
Describe the features of triglycerides.
- Good source of energy- high ratio of energy storing carbon-hydrogen bonds to carbon. Produce two times energy of carbohydrates
- Low mass to energy ratio- high energy in a small volume- reduces the mass animals have to carry.
- Insoluble- large and non-polar and don’t affect osmosis or water potential.
- Important source of water- high ratio of carbon to oxygen, so release water when oxidised.
What do triglycerides form in water (and draw)?
- Form Insoluble droplets aka micelles
- See revision card for drawing
Draw a triglyceride
Answer on revision card.
Describe the structure of a phospholipid.
- Similar to triglycerides, except one fatty acid is replaced with a phosphate.
- Hydrophilic phosphate heads- attract water- interact with water but not fat- negatively charged.
- Two hydrophobic fatty acid tails- repel water- orient away from water but mix with fat
- Polar molecule- head as close to the water as possible. Tails far away.
Describe the features and functions of a phospholipid bilayer.
- Polar molecules form a bilayer.
- Phosphate heads face outwards, fatty acid tails face inwards.
- Helps form the cell surface membrane
- Forms a hydrophobic barrier- the centre blocks water soluble substances
Why are phospolipids useful in cell membranes?
- Provide flexibility
- Transfer lipid soluble substances
- The hydrophilic phosphate heads hold the phospholipids at the surface of the cell-surface membrane.
What do phospholipids easily form?
Glycolipids with carbohydrates