3 Road To War Flashcards
What were Hitler’s foreign policy aims?
- In 1933 Hitler became Chancellor of Germany and by 1934 he was the undisputed leader/Fuhrer. Hitler had very different aims to the previous German leaders in the Weimar government and these would increase tension in Europe and make conflict more likely.
- Hitler wanted to abolish the Treaty of Versailles. As an ex-soldier, he felt betrayed by the November Criminals and hated the Treaty. He promised that if he became leader of Germany he would reverse the treaty.
- Hitler wanted to reclaim the land that Germany had lost. He wanted to unite volksdeutsche (German speakers) and create a greater Germany. This involved wanting German minorities in other countries such as Czechoslovakia to rejoin Germany and completing Anschluss. He also wanted to create lebensraum (living space) for German people in Eastern Europe, by taking control of more land there.
- Hitler wanted to defeat Communism and the Bolsheviks. This would happen by creating a German Empire carved out of the Soviet Union.
Rearmament, 1933 - 1936
- Hitler became chancellor of Germany in 1933, at the same time as the Disarmament Conference.
- He secretly began drafting men into the army to deal with the issue of unemployment, though publicly he said that he would not rearm Germany ‘if in 5 years all other nations destroyed their arms’.
- When this was rejected, Hitler withdrew Germany from the Conference and from the League of Nations (October 1933)
- At a rally in 1935, Hitler showed off military equipment that he had secretly been building. He held several parades to show off the German forces
- He also announced that he was reintroducing conscription in 1936 and that he was building a Luftwaffe (air force).
- By 1939 Germany had: 95 warships, 8,250 aircrafts, and 950,000 men.
- In Germany this move was highly popular; Nazi support grew as rearmament created jobs and made Germans feel like Germany was getting stronger again.
- The collapse of the Disarmament Conference and the fact that many other nations were rearming as a way to create jobs during the Great Depression meant that Hitler knew he would get away with rearming.
- Hitler also knew that Britain would not act as they agreed that the military restrictions were too tight; in 1935 they themselves had broken the Treaty of Versailles by signing the Anglo-German Agreement.
- Hitler was able to rearm Germany with no consequences for breaking the treaty.
The Saar Plebiscite, January 1935
● Under the Treaty of Versailles, the Saar was placed under the administration of the League of Nations for 15 years.
● In 1935, a plebiscite was held for people to vote on whether the region should return to German rule
● Joseph Goebbels mounted a massive propaganda campaign.
● 90% of the voters chose to join Germany.
● The Saar also contained huge quantities of coal, which Hitler could use to power his armaments factories to help with Germany’s rearmament
● The plebiscite was also a real morale boost for Hitler. He used this as propaganda to show that German people wanted to unite with the Nazis and he was right to try and unite volksdeutsche (German speakers).
Remilitarisation of the Rhineland, March 1936
- Under the Treaty of Versailles, the Rhineland was to be demilitarised. This created a buffer zone between France and Germany; it made France more secure and Germany more vulnerable on its Western border. The demilitarisation of the Rhineland was also accepted by Germany in the Locarno Treaties of 1925.
- In 1935, France and Russia signed the Franco-Soviet Pact, promising to support each other if either was attacked by Germany. Hitler used this to claim that Germany was under threat and that France had broken the Locarno Treaties. This gave him an excuse to remilitarise the Rhineland.
- On 7th March 1936, Hitler sent 20,000 soldiers into the Rhineland.
- His generals were ordered to retreat if there was any resistance from the French. Hitler knew that at this point Germany’s army was no match for France’s.
- The soldiers arrived on bicycles and there was no air support. This made the move seem less aggressive.
- The attention of the League of Nations was on the Abyssinian Crisis which was happening at the same time. The League condemned Hitler’s actions but had no power to do anything else.
- France was most threatened by the move but also did nothing. An election was imminent in France and no one wanted responsibility for plunging France into a war.
- France also overestimated the strength of the German army and thought that it was much stronger than it actually was. In reality, Hitler had already ordered his general to retreat if the French resisted.
- Hitler had successfully secured his Western border meaning he could continue to act aggressively and not be worried about an invasion from France.
- He had tested Britain and France and faced no consequence for his actions, thus emboldening him further.
German and Italian involvement in the Spanish Civil War, 1936
- Civil War broke out in Spain between supporters of the Republican Government, and right-wing rebels (Nationalists) who were led by Francisco Franco.
- Stalin’s USSR supported the Republican government by supplying weapons, aircrafts, and pilots.
- As Franco wanted a right-wing, fascist style government, similar to Mussolini and Hitler, they supported him and the Nationalists.
- Italy sent 290 aeroplanes and 80,000 men to Spain, spending £80 million. Italian submarines also blockaded Spanish ports and stopped supplies from reaching the Spanish government.
- Germany sent 16,000 soldiers and hundreds of aeroplanes to Spain, spending £43 million. German soldiers trained the Spanish fascists.
- Britain and France stayed neutral and did nothing to prevent the war, or German and Italian involvement in it.
- The conflict gave Hitler the opportunity to try out his new Luftwaffe (air force)
- It also allowed him to give his soldiers experience, and develop the Blitzkrieg tactics that the German military would use in future conflicts.
- In the end, Franco and the fascists won, giving Hitler and Mussolini confidence in the strength of their military power.
- Working together in the war also brought Mussolini and Hitler closer, they would sign the Rome-Berlin Axis as the war was going on.
- Britain and France’s lack of action emboldened Hitler further.
The Rome-Berlin Axis
● Mussolini did not trust France, as they failed to prevent Hitler’sremilitarisation of the Rhinela nd.
● Mussolini did not trust Britain, as they signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement with Hitler.
● Mussolini was also disgusted with both Britain and France, as they had criticised his invasion of Abyssinia.
● As a result, Mussolini wanted a new alliance with a powerful country who shared his values.
● Working together in the Spanish Civil War also brought Mussolini and Hitler closer, they would sign the Rome-Berlin Axis as the war was going on.
● In November 1936, Hitler and Mussolini signed a treaty of friendship called the Rome-Berlin Axis. All countries on their side would become known as Axis powers.
Anti-Comintern Pact – July 1936
● The USSR created the Comintern, a group dedicated to spreading Communism. Germany, Japan and Italy were all concerned by this.
● In November 1936, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, designed to fight Communism. Italy joined a year later in 1937.
● Hitler and Mussolini were emboldened by their new alliances and felt stronger than ever. They did not believe Britain and France would dare to challenge them.
● The alliances that would fight World War 2 were now in place and conflict was becoming more likely.
Anschluss with Austria, 1938
● In 1934, Hitler had tried to take over Austria during what was known as the Dollfuss Affair. However, Mussolini had been able to stop him by stationing his troops on the Austrian border.
● As Hitler signed the Rome-Berlin Axis, he knew that no one would stop him pursuing Anschluss since he was allied with Mussolini.
● The Nazi Party in Austria had a strong presence. Hitler encouraged them to create trouble and hold demonstrations demanding union with Germany.
● The Austrian Chancellor, Schuschnigg, was told by Hitler that only Anschluss could restore political order.
● Schuschnigg appealed to the British and French but this failed. He decided to call a plebiscite to let the Austrian people decide.
● To ensure victory, Hitler sent his soldiers into Austria in March 1938.
● On 10 th April 1938 a plebiscite was finally held, though German soldiers were stationed at the voting points. 99.75% of voters said they supported Anschluss.
● Anschluss had now been completed.
● By completing Anschluss, he had added Austria’s soldiers (100,000), population (7 million) weapons, and its rich deposits of gold and iron ore to Germany’s Empire.
● Hitler had broken yet another term of the Treaty of Versailles and faced no consequence.
The crisis over Czechoslovakia and the Munich Agreement , 1938
Causes:
● Czechoslovakia was one of the new countries that had been created by the Treaty of Versailles. So, Hitler wanted to destroy it.
● The Sudetenland (area of Czechoslovakia closest to Germany) also contained 3 million volksdeutsche (German speakers), who Hitler wanted to unite with.
● After Anschluss, the leader of Czechoslovakia was horrified and asked for British and French reassurances that they would protect the region. They gave their reassurances.
Attempts to avoid war:
● As Britain, France and the USSR had promised to defend Czechoslovakia, Hitler knew it would not be easy.
● Czechoslovakia also had a modern army and people began to feel like if Hitler was aggressive this time, a war would surely break out.
● Throughout the summer, tensions were high. In Britain magazines carried advertisements for air-raid protection and gas masks.
● 15th September: Chamberlain was desperate to avoid war and flew to Germany to meet Hitler. Hitler argued that he was only interested in parts of the Sudetenland and only if a plebiscite showed that the Sudeten Germans wanted to join Germany. Chamberlain felt this was reasonable; he decided that Germany could have parts of the Sudetenland.
● 22nd September: Hitler increased his demands. He said that he wanted all of the Sudetenland and that Hungary and Poland should also receive Czech land.
● 29th September: At the Munich Conference, Chamberlain agreed to every one of Hitler’s demands in return for the promise of peace.
● Chamberlain returned to London a hero: he had avoided war
Consequences:
● On 1st October, German troops marched into the Sudetenland. Hitler had managed this without a single shot being fired.
● By taking the Sudetenland, Hitler had control of all of the Czech fortifications and defences, leaving Czechoslovakia helpless.
● Hitler also gained control of important reserves of coal, glass factories and the Skoda factory, which could be used to make tanks.
● Hitler’s demands at the Munich Conference show how emboldened he was; he knew he could get what he wanted from Britain and France.
Invasion of Czechoslovakia, March 1939
● Hitler had promised peace at the Munich Conference.
● However, on 15th March 1939, Hitler broke the agreement and invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia.
● Hitler had once again acted aggressively without any consequence. His next target was Poland, as by taking over Czechoslovakia he could invade Poland on two fronts.
● Britain and France did not act, but they had realised that appeasement had failed. They made a guarantee that if Poland was invaded, they would go to war to protect them.
The Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939
Hitler’s reasons:
● Hitler wanted to continue his Lebensraum policy by taking control of Poland. However, he was worried about an attack from Stalin if he did this.
● Poland was created using land from Germany and the USSR, so he was worried invading Poland may provoke Stalin into a war.
● If France and Britain did act on their promise to protect Poland, and they were allied to the USSR, Hitler would face attacks on the East and West. To avoid a war on two fronts, Hitler needed to ensure that Stalin was an ally.
Stalin’s reasons:
● France and the USSR signed a treaty in 1935 which said France would help the USSR if Germany invaded the Soviet Union (Franco-Soviet Pact). However, Stalin doubted whether France would actually stick to this. They failed to stand up to Hitler when he remilitarized the Rhineland, and this was on the French border! Stalin needed to find a way to protect the USSR from Germany.
● Stalin was also concerned by the Munich Agreement. He was not even consulted about it and realised that Britain and France were powerless against Hitler, and that they were willing to sacrifice land to appease him.
● Stalin also wanted time! He knew that war with Hitler was coming but also knew that his army was not yet ready to face the Nazis; they had just been embarrassed in a Winter War with the small nation of Finland. Stalin wanted to buy time to prepare for war with Hitler.
What was the Nazi-Soviet Pact?
● On 23rd August, 1939, Hitler and Stalin signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact.
● They agreed that they would not attack one another.
● The pact also carved Eastern Europe up between them. Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland were agreed to be in the Soviet sphere of influence, they would also get the Eastern half of Poland.
The Polish crisis and the outbreak of war
● Poland’s borders were completely vulnerable and she was left isolated.
● The Nazi-Soviet Pact enabled Germany to attack Poland on September 1, 1939, without fear of Soviet intervention.
● The Nazi-Soviet Pact destroyed attempts by the West to bring the Soviet Union into an alliance against Germany. This meant Germany could deal with the forces of France and Britain in the West without having to simultaneously fight the Soviet Union on a second front in the East.
● On 3 September 1939, the British sent an ultimatum to Germany. The Germans were to send assurances to Britain that they would withdraw their troops from Poland by 11am or Britain would be in a state of war with Germany, and would send troops to Europe.
● When no reply came by the deadline, Britain declared war on Germany. France followed suit and also declared war.
● Poland was overrun by Nazi and Soviet troops within four weeks and Hitler was convinced that Britain and France would back down. He was wrong. The Second World War had started.
Was the policy of appeasement justified?
● Appeasement meant giving Hitler what he wanted. To appease Hitler, Britain would turn a blind eye to Hitler’s actions and give into his territorial demands.
● Examples of appeasement included: allowing Hitler to rearm, to remilitarise the Rhineland, complete Anschluss, agreeing to his demands at the Munich Conference, allowing him to break the Munich Agreement and invade Czechoslovakia.
Arguments for appeasement
● The First World War was still fresh in the minds of the people of Europe. It is estimated that around 20 million people were killed. British and French leaders, and much of their population, wished to avoid another war at all costs.
● Appeasement bought time. It allowed the British time to rearm and recover from the effects of WWI and the Great Depression. Britain only properly started rearming in 1935 and intelligence suggested that the British were some way behind the Germans.
● American support had been vital to British success in WWI. Since then the USA had pursued a policy of isolationism and even signed two neutrality acts in 1935, saying that they would not get involved if Europe went to war. Britain was even more desperate to avoid / delay a war as it could not rely on the USA.
● Many people felt that the Treaty of Versailles had been too harsh and therefore it was fair to allow Hitler and Germany to overturn parts of it. They assumed that once these wrongs were put right then Germany would stop.
● Following the Munich Agreement, Chamberlain was greeted as a hero. This reflected the view that the British public did not want war and supported appeasement.
Arguments against appeasement
● Appeasement meant that opportunities were missed to stop Hitler sooner. For example, Hitler had told his army to stand down if the French resisted when they remilitarized the Rhineland as he knew his army was not strong enough. If Britain and France had acted sooner, Hitler could have been stopped without resorting to a war.
● As Hitler was given more, the more confident he grew at pushing the boundaries. This is clear by looking at how he increased his demands at the Munich Conference knowing that he would get what he wanted. By not standing up to Hitler soon, he only grew more emboldened.
● Appeasement alienated the USSR; Stalin was worried that Hitler might invade the USSR but did not feel that he could rely on Britain and France for support if he did as they did not stand up to him. Their relationship was strained by the policy of appeasement.
● Appeasement was morally wrong. It left countries like Austria and Czechoslovakia occupied by the Nazis who treated people brutally and with no mercy. Political games should not have been played at the expense of the lives of people in those countries.
● As well as giving Britain and France time to rearm, appeasement also gave Hitler time. If he was stopped sooner, he would not have been strong enough to take Germany into a war.
