2 League of Nations Flashcards
What year was the League of nations created and who by?
The League of Nations was officially created on January 10th 1920 at the Paris Peace conference. It was founded by Woodrow Wilson and it was based in Geneva, Switzerland, a neutral country in the First World War.
The League of Nations was set up by the first 26 clauses of the Treaty of Versailles -
called ‘The Covenant of the League of Nations’.
What were the aims of the League?
The Covenant outlined the structure and objectives of the League, which included the
following key aims:
1. Discourage aggression
2. Encourage cooperation
3. Encourage nations to disarm
4. Improve the living and working conditions of the
people of the world
- Article 10 was the most important. It emphasised the importance of collective security: this established the basic idea that an attack on one member state was an attack on all member states
- Nations joining the League were expected to uphold the principles of collective security, disarmament, and international cooperation.
- The League had very ambitious aims, and it was always going to be difficult to achieve them.
What was the Structure of the League?
Assembly - The leagues parliament. Made decisions such as: admitting new members; electing judges; appointing temporary members; deciding how the League’s money should be spent. Every member could send representatives to the assembly, which met once a
year to discuss and vote on matters. Decisions made by the Assembly had to be unanimous - they had to be agreedon by all members of the assembly. The Assembly could recommend action to the council.
The secretariat - The civil service of the League. In charge of administration such as keeping records and preparing reports. The secretariat had specialist sections covering health, finance and disarmament.
The Permanent Court of International Justice - A panel of judges who gave legal advice to the council and assembly. Made decisions on disputes between countries such as borders. However it was just advice and the court found it difficult to make countries agree.
The council - A smaller group which met several times a year (usually 5). Britain, France, Italy and Japan were permanent. Temporary members joined for a 3 year period. These members could veto rulings made by the council of the assembly. Their role was to sort out internal disputes in the league. Its main powers were: moral condemnation; economic sanctions; military force (using member countries armies). The council’s interests were ultimately overrepresented.
The International Labour Organisation - Encouraged countries to pass laws to improve working conditions. Made up of government representatives, employers and workers.
Special Commissions - Groups that tackled certain issues which included:
- The disarmament commission (promote disarmament)
- The health committee (tackled diseases)
- The slavery commission (worked to abolish slavery)
- The refugees committee (helped WW1 refugees)
Membership of the League
- The USA never joined the League
- Germany and the USSR were not allowed to join the League.
- The Soviet Union joined the League in 1934.
- Germany was allowed to join in 1926. In 1933, after coming to power, Hitler withdrew Germany from the league.
- Japan withdrew from the League in the 1930s over Manchuria and Italy withdrew from the League in 1937 over the Abyssinia Crisis. This suggested that membership of the League was fluid, and therefore not a big commitment; if you disagreed, you could simply leave.
Important members:
Britain, France, Italy, Japan
USA’s absence from the League
- Despite the fact that the USA (Wilson) created the idea of the League, there was mass opposition to the idea of joining it in the USA for a number of reasons:
- Economic concerns: if the League imposed economic sanctions (e.g. banning trade), it might be American trade and businesses that suffered the most.
- Military concerns: the USA had just lost 120,000 men in WWI. People feared that joining the League meant sending US soldiers to settle conflicts around the world which they felt did not involve them.
- Political concerns: Many Americans wanted to pursue isolationism and distance themselves from Europe. Also, people feared that the League would be dominated by Britain and France who had massive empires - many in the US were anti-imperialist.
- Therefore, when Congress voted in 1919 regarding the USA joining the League, Wilson was defeated.
- The League of Nations opened in 1920, without the USA
- Wilson took the proposal back to Congress in 1920, but he was defeated 49-35
- In 1920 Wilson did not run for re-election (he was too ill), but his successor made membership of the League a major part of the Democrat campaign. The Republican candidate campaigned for America to be isolationist. His slogan was ‘return to normalcy’.
- The Republicans won a landslide victory and the USA never joined the League.
- The USA’s absence had serious ramifications for the authority and credibility of the League.
What were the League’s sanctions
- Mitigation: Getting countries together to talk through problems and asking them to agree
- Moral condemnation: Tell the nations involved off
- Economic sanctions: Whereby members of the League would not trade with the warring nations
- Borrowing the army of member states to enforce decisions (the League did not have its own army)
The League’s sanctions meant that it was difficult for them to enforce decisions as the sanctions either did not have tangible consequences, or were reliant on member states agreeing which was unlikely.
What were the successes of the League in the 1920s?
Upper Silesia (1921):
- Upper Silesia was on the border between Germany and Poland. Both countries wanted to claim it, as it was very important for iron and steel production.
- A plebiscite (vote) was held to decide who should have it and Germany won 60% of the votes. But the Poles claimed that many of the German voters no longer lived in Upper Silesia
- Areas that voted more for Germany became German and vice versa
- Both the Germans and the Poles were unhappy and relations between them gradually worsened
- Some historians believe the League did the best job it could in a difficult situation.
Aaland Islands (1920-21):
- Both Sweden and Finland claimed the Aland Islands, which were between the two countries.
- Both were threatening to go to war with each other over their claim. The League is asked to investigate.
- The League gave the Aland Islands to Finland, but said that they could not be fortified, so that they could not be used as a base to attack Sweden.
- Both sides accepted the terms and the League had successfully avoided war.
Bulgaria (1925):
- Greek troops were killed at the Bulgarian border so Greece invaded Bulgaria.
- In response Greek soldiers invaded Bulgaria
- Bulgaria appealed to the League for help
- The League condemned Greece’s actions and asked them to pay £45,000 in compensation. They were threatened with sanctions if they did not listen.
- The Greeks thought the League was being hypocritical after Cofru. However, they did not dare to challenge the League though, as they were only a small country and they did not want to upset Britain and France.
- Greece therefore followed the League’s instructions
Locarno Treaties (1925) - It was a treaty between France, Belgium and Germany who promised not to invade each other. Germany joined the League soon after however the League had nothing to do with these treaties.
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) - 61 countries signed this pact independently of the League. It promised they wouldn’t use war to solve disputes. This kept peace however it showed a lack of faith in the League.
Dawes plan (1924) - Allowed Germany to rebuild its industry through US loans,
which resulted in increased employment, international trade, and hence profits.
Germany could afford to pay reparations to Britain and France, who could in turn
repay US war loans. Countries were trading more and so war became less likely.
Young plan (1929) - Reduced German reparations payments, however did not get
put into action due to the great depression.
What were the failures of the League in the 1920s?
Vilna (1920):
- After the first World War, the countries that had been in Austria-Hungary’s Empire were given independence. Amongst them were Poland and Lithuania.
- Vilna was supposed to be the new capital of Lithuania, but most of the people who lived there were Polish.
- Poland invaded Lithuania and took the city, so Lithuania asked the League for help.
- In response, the League asked Poland to remove her soldiers.
- Poland refused to remove her soldiers. France saw Poland as an ally against Germany, so wouldn’t help and Britain wouldn’t act alone.
- In their first major crisis the League did nothing and Poland kept Vilna.
Ruhr (1923):
- In 1923, the German government were unable to paly the reparation required under the terms of the TOV.
- France and Belgium responded by sending 60,000 troops to the Ruhr.
- The occupation of Ruhr led to a collapse of the German economy. There was massive inflation and a large increase in unemployment.
- Germany was now unable to pay any reparations.
Corfu (1923):
- The border between Albania and Greece still hadn’t been decided so an Italian General named Tellini was sent to investigate.
- He and his team were murdered. Mussolini was furious and demanded compensation. When he didn’t get it, he invaded the island of Corfu, killing 15 people.
- Greece appealed to the League for help.
- The League said that Italian aggression was wrong, but Greece still had to pay compensation. The League said it would hold the money until the killers were found.
- Italy did not accept the League’s decision and Mussolini complained to the Conference of Ambassadors (this included France and Japan)
- Robert Cecil, a Brit working in the League wanted to take action against Italy and the British were not willing to accept this and were even prepared to send warships to force Mussolini out of Corfu. However, France was unwilling to do this.
- The Conference of Ambassadors ignored the League’s decision and forced Greece to pay compensation straight to Italy.
- The Corfu incident revealed how the League could be undermined by its leaders.
- To fix this, Britain and France drew up the Geneva Agreement in 1924, which said that if two of its members were in a dispute they would have to ask the League to resolve it and that they would have to accept the League’s decision.
- Before the agreement could be put into effect there was a general election in Britain and the new Conservative government refused to sign the agreement. They were worried Britain would be forced to agree to a decision that was not in its own interest.
Disarmament - During the Washington Conference, 1921, the USA, Japan,
Britain, and France agreed to limit the size of their navies, but that was as far as
it got. This damaged the League’s reputation in Germany as it was forced to
disarm under the Treaty of Versailles but no other country had disarmed to the
same extent. This angered German nationalists and the Nazis exploited this as a
reason to rearm and become aggressive in the late 1930s.
What was some of the Leagues humanitarian work?
The International Labour Organisation:
- ILO successfully banned poisonous white lead from paint
- Limited working hours for small children, and improved working conditions
generally in many countries. It also created a restriction of a maximum 48-hour
week and 8-hour day, but only a minority of countries adopted it because it
would raise industrial costs.
The Health Committee:
- The league worked hard to defeat leprosy, malaria and yellow fever (global
campaign to exterminate mosquitoes), and the plague in the USSR, despite not
being a member of the League.
- The Health Committee is generally regarded as one of the most successful and its work was continued after 1945 in the form of the World Health Organisation. It sponsored research into infectious diseases at institutes in Singapore, London and Denmark. These institutes helped develop vaccines to fight deadly diseases such as leprosy and malaria.
The Refugees Commission:
- They helped refugees who were stranded in the Balkans, Greece, Armenia, and Turkey.
- The League issues identity documents - Nansen Passport - to help refugees and prisoners of war return home.
- 400,000 prisoners were returned to their homes.
- When war led to a refugee crisis in Turkey in 1922, the League successfully housed hundreds of thousands in refugee camps and acted quickly to stamp out cholera, smallpox, and dysentery in the camps.
The Slavery Commission:
- It freed 200,000 slaves in British-owned Sierra Leone.
- It organised raids against slave owners and traders in Burma.
- The League challenged the use of forced labour to build the railway in Tanganyika.
- It successfully reduced the death rate on the Tanganyika railway; the original death rate was 50% and the League brought this down to 4%.
Other work:
- The League blacklisted four large German, Dutch, French and Swiss companies which were involved in the illegal drug trade.
- The League also produced an international highway code for road users.
Why did Japan Invade Manchuria?
Economic - Post great depression China and USA imposed tariffs on Japanese goods in an effort to protect themselves leading to an economic crisis in Japan. For example the silk trade became one fifth of what is was in the 1920s.
Manchuria was rich in natural resources (farmland, coal, iron and wood) and it was close. Furthermore they already had large industries in the area such as the South Manchurian railway they got after Russia surrendered in 1905.
What happened during the invasion?
Mukden incident, September 1931:
- On 18th September 1931, there was an explosion on the South Manchurian Railway (which was controlled by the Japanese)
- The Japanese army claimed that the train had been attacked by Chinese soldiers, who also shot at the railway guards.
- The Chinese denied this. They said that their soldiers had been asleep when the event happened.
- Japan used the Mukden Incident as an excuse to invade and they renamed it ‘Manchukuo’. - - They implemented an ex Chinese emperor as a puppet ruler. China appealed to the League
What was the League’s response to Manchuria?
September 1931 - September 1932:
- The League put together a Commission of Inquiry led by Lord Lytton (a British politician) to investigate what had happened; Lytton Commission.
- It took them over a year to present the Lytton Report in September 1932: the judgement stated that Japan had acted unlawfully and that Manchuria should be returned to the Chinese. People already knew this!
Escalation of tensions - February 1933:
- On 24th February, the Lytton Report was approved by 42 votes to 1; only Japan voted against it
- On 27th March 1933, Japan resigned from the League of Nations
- Japan announced that they intended to invade more of China.
The League’s final response:
- Britain and France both had colonies in South-East Asia; they did not want to provoke a war with Japan
- The League discussed economic sanctions, but knew this was pointless and its members were unwilling to use these anyway
- The League also discussed banning arms sales to Japan, but the member countries could not agree; they were worried Japan would retaliate.
- Although the League failed to stop Japanese aggression, it had a valid excuse. Japan was over 8,000km away and only the USA or USSR had the resources to remove Japan from Manchuria. The League was ultimately helpless and would do more if a similar situation was happening in Europe.
Why did Italy Invade Abyssinia?
- Mussolini had promised to rebuild the Ancient Roman Empire and restore Italy’s pride.
- In 1896, Italy had tried to invade Abyssinia and failed. This was a humiliating defeat.
- Abyssinia was rich in natural resources like gold, copper and platinum.
- Abyssinia had fertile land, which was good for grazing animals.
- Mussolini had dealt with the League of Nations before in the Corfu Crisis (1923). The League had given in to him then and he was sure that they would again.
- Mussolini had seen what happened in Manchuria in 1931. He thought the League was too weak to act.
- Italy already had colonies bordering Abyssinia making the invasion easier.
What happened during the invasion?
Wal Wal, December 1934:
- In December 1934, Italian soldiers fought Abyssinian soldiers at Wal Wal (80km inside Abyssinia). 150 Abyssinians and 2 Italians were killed.
- Mussolini used this as his cue and claimed this was actually Italian territory.
- He demanded an apology and began preparing his army for an invasion of Abyssinia.
- The Abyssinian emperor, Haile Selassie, appealed to the League for help.
The Stresa Front
- In early 1935, Britain, France and Italy signed the Stresa Front.
- This was a formal statement against German rearmament, and a promise to stand united against Germany. (At the same meeting to discuss this, they did not even bring up Abyssinia!)
Why did the League fail over Abyssinia?
Economic Sanctions - The league was slow to act and the sanctions didn’t include crucial war resources such as oil, steel, iron or coal. Britain didn’t ban coal in fear of unemployment in mines. Oil wasn’t banned since it was believed USA and USSR would have still supplied it to Mussolini however he later admitted he would have stopped the invasion if these were banned. The league imposed sanctions on Abyssinia leaving them defenceless.
Self interest of Britain and France - They could have closed the Suez cannel which would stop Mussolini moving troops and supplies to Abyssinia therefore stopping the invasion. They followed this policy of appeasement in fear that Mussolini would ally with Hitler. However in 1936 Mussolini allied with Hitler anyway.
The Hoare and Laval Pact - Britain and France sent Foreign ministers to come up with a settlement offer for Italy. They secretly agreed that Italy could have two thirds of Abyssinia if he called of the Invasion. This land was fertile and Abyssinia would be left with mountainous regions. This wasn’t their land to give either. Word got out and they were sacked but it showed Britain and France would undermine the League.
