3. Psychology 1 Flashcards
Alzheimer’s disease (physiological changes)
Normally amyloid precursor proteins (APP) are sniped but instead aggregate into beta-amyloid plaques. Tau protein undergoes hyper phosphorylation and causes the modified tau protein to aggregate into insoluble neurofibrillary tangles
Alzheimer’s disease signs and symptoms
Memory lossImpaired cognitionLanguage deteriorationNormally after 65Late stages: more severeLoss of judgementConfusionDrastic mood and personality changes
memory
storage and retrieval of information
learning
long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience
automatic processing
requires no attention or conscious effort ( multitasking on the phone)
controlled processing
if repeated, can become automatic processing through repetition (learning the alphabet and how now it is recalled effortlessly)
maintenance rehearsal
repetitive rehearsal of new information without thinking about its meaning or contextcan only maintain information in the working memory, at at most create a weak, short lived long term memory
elaborative rehearsal (semantic rehearsal)
rehearsal of new information by thinking about its meaning, purpose, and relationship to previously-known conceptsdo both initial encoding and spaced repetitions
visual encoding
encoding of an image or visualization
acoustic encoding
encoding of a sound
semantic encoding
encoding of meaning, understanding, or a concept’s interrelation with other informationresults in the strongest, most enduring memories, that are recalled more easily and rapidly.
mneumonics
word association devices (SOH-CAH-TOA)
chunking
learning in chunks.learning by chapters, sections, or units
peg-word system
memorized paragraph or sentence, that can be associated or applied to other examples(using the 12 days of christmas to remember the twelve steps of catabolism or something else)
method of loci
sherlock holmes memory room
state-dependent learning
memory encoded in a particular place or setting, or in conjunction with a sight, sound, or smellrecall is enhanced when attempted in a matching state-at the same place, in the same setting, or in conjunction with the same sight, sound or smell
self-reference effect
effect that when memory is applied to self, it is remembered more easily (like one that had bell’s palsy would remember more about bell’s palsy)
spacing effect
learning information over time, rather than in one chunk
desirable difficulties
expensive memory principleeasily learned = easily forgoteninformation more difficult to find = more retentiondeep processing
shallow processing
encoding what things look like (words on a textbook)
deep processing (semantic processing)
involves encoding the meaning of a concept, the context surrounding a concept, or making relational connections to other previously-encoded memories
sensory memory
ex. shown a flash card, remembered what is on the flash card real quick
working memory
memory that pulls and applies the information
short term memory
short lived, under 30 seconds
long term memory
memory above 30 seconds, limitless duration, and capacity with enough repetition
explicit memory (declarative memory)
conscious, intentional recall of memory
implicit memory (non-declarative memory)
automatic, unconscious recall, usually of skills, procedures or conditioned responses
procedural memory
motor skills, muscle memory
episodic memory
time line memory, environment experience, remembering what happened and where at a certain time.
semantic memory
memory or ideas attached to other memories
semantic networks
semantic processing and memory storage that adds context and meaning to what would otherwise be a rote factnodes and webs conceptsuperordinate links- connect concept to category (dog –> animal)modifier links- connects concept to properties (dog –> tail)
spreading activation
how semantic networks process and recall eventsprimary, seconday, tertiary nodes, etc…stronger connections: more similar or closely related, frequently used connections
recall
retrieval and active statement or correct application of a memory
recognition
associating information with an existing memory
relearning
increased learning efficiency when reinforcing an existing memory
priming effect
resenting with a related word or phrase first increases recall or verification rate (saying “nurse” first, would prime the recall of “doctor” much more quickly)
typicality effect
increasing recall or verification rate over using a less typical example (“robin is a bird” is recalled much more quickly than a “penguin is a bird”)
familiarity effect
increasing recall or verification rate over using familiar examples (a dog is a mammal is much more familiar than, an aardvark is a mammal)
category size effect
increasing recall or verification rate over using group sizes with fewer members and decrease if the category has many members (a german shepherd is a dog is verified more quickly than a german shepherd is a mammal)
true-false effect
true statements are verified more quickly than false statements
serial position effect
presentation order or position helps with recallprimary effect - things learned first are more easily recalledrecency effect - things learned most recent are more easily recalled
interference effects
a new memory that is similar to an existing one can cause DIFFICULTY to remember the new memory
proactive interference
old memories interfere with new ones ( struggling to remember new phone number because of old one)
retroactive interference
new memories interfere with recall of old ones
automatic spreading activation
when a primer is a category name and the target is an example within the category
heightened emotion states
increase memory
emotional interference
heightened emotion can increase strength of one memory while decreasing the memory of other memories surrounding that
positive recall
remembered more easily
negative recall
forgotten more easily
level of detail
more detailed memories are recalled more easily
state-dependent learning
similar to states to which memory is encoded, and retrieved enhances recall
spaced repetition
don’t cram
long term memory traces
fragile, needs reenforcing and rehearsing to last
the curve of forgetting
hermann ebbinghous retention percent vs. time graph –> shows how retention decreases with time, but slope slows with more review
interference
new memories can interfere with the recall of the existing memories, especially if new memories are similar to preexisting memories
episodic memory
noticeable loss, what did i do Friday night?, where was I when 9/11 happened?
source memory
like episodic memory, noticeable loss, where did I read or learn about that?, who told me about 9/11?
semantic memory (implicit memory)
no decline, including procedural memory
confabulation
fabrication of false but vivid, and detailed memories to fill in gaps in a coherent story or memory
often observed in Alzheimer’s or Korsakoff’s patients
misinformation effect
presentation of inaccurate post event information can cause an accurate memory to be altered or recalled inaccurately
source monitoring errors (source amnesia)
recall errors in which the source of the memory is the inaccurately identified
heuristic judgements -unconscious determination of the source used on clues or shot-cuts associated with the memory
systematic judgements - conscious determination of the source based on intentional logical evaluation of the details remembered
neural plasticity
referring to the ability of the brain and neurons to physically change in response to various stimuli
neural development
infants, compared to adults have the:
1.SAME number of neurons
2. have more synapses
3, have fewer glial cells
synaptic pruning
decreasing the number of unused synapses during adolescence as the stronger, more frequented synapses are strengthened
memory storage (learning)
short term - chemical or electrical traces, that fade within 30 seconds
long term- physical changes to neuron
(LTP) long term potentiation
persistent strengthening of a synapse based on increased activity at that synapse
(LDP) long term depression
persistent weakening of a synapses base on lack of activity at that synapse
habituation
a DECREASED response to a stimulus after the stimulus has been presented multiple times (hearing alarm so many times, eventually you don;t hear it anymore)
dishabituation
an INCREASED response to a stimulus after habituation has already occurred. the old stimulus is suddenly reacted as if it were new. (so used to an alarm ringing, but all of a sudden noticing it again) (not opposite to habituation)
sensitization
an INCREASED response to a stimulus after the stimulus has been presented multiple times (opposite to habituation)
classical conditioning
learning to associate one stimulus to another
stimulus: neutral, conditioned, unconditioned
response: conditioned, unconditioned
conditioning: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization
amnesia
loss of memory as result of brain damage, injury, or psychological trauma
anterograde amnesia
inability to create new memories
retrograde amnesia
inability to recall old memories
dementia
gradual, long-term decline in general mental function, or capability
prospective memory
ability to remember to do something at some future time
neutral stimulus
stimulus that does not elicit a response in the absence of learning
stimulus that leads to nowhere
(bell)
unconditioned stimulus
stimulus that elicits a natural response
dog salivating for food
conditioned stimulus
neutral stimulus that is paired with a unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response
(dog salivating when hearing a bell)
acquired conditioning
acquisition of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned stimulus
extinction conditioning
loss of conditioned response
spontaneous recovery
spontaneous extinction of a condition
generalization (conditioning)
conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to but not identical to the conditioned stimulus itself
operant conditioning
learning to associate a behavior with a consequence
REINFORCEMENT OF TVOLUNTARY BEHAVIOR
shaping
involves reinforcing successive approximations for some target behavior (teaching a dog to sit on command)
extinction
when a behavior results in no consequences
positive reinforcement
presenting something that results in reinforcement (giving reward for good grades)
negative reinforcement
removing something to reinforce a behavior (beeping of car to put seatbelt on, doing chores to not hear nagging)
positive punishment
presenting something to result in punishment (spanking children)
negative punishment
removing something to make behavior less likely to occur (taking kid’s phone away)
Fixed-ratio reinforcement
reinforcement given at specific intervals
mouse getting cheese every x# of times it presses a button
variable-ratio reinforcement
reinforcement given at random intervals
mouse getting cheese at random intervals when it presses a button
fixed-interval reinforcement
reinforcement given at specific time intervals
mouse getting cheese every x# of seconds
variable-interval reinforcement
reinforcement given at random time intervals
mouse getting cheese at random time intervals
escape learning
subject adopt a behaviors to reduce or end and unpleasant stimulus
avoidance learning
subject adopts a behavior to avoid an unpleasant stimulus in the future
automatic processing
unconscious, unintentional, and stimulus driven processing
rule-based processing
conscious, intentional processing
latent learning
learning that exists without the presentation of a reward but is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is presented
biological predispositions
a biological subjects unstrings that predispose them toward adaptive responses, decreasing the likelihood that condition responses contrary to those prepositions will endure
instinctive drift
tendency of a subject of operant conditioning to ever from a conditioned response to an instinctual response
observational learning
generalized term describing any learning that results from observation of the behavior of others
social-cognitive theory
broad psychological perspective that attempts to explain behavior, learning and other phenomena
includes observational learning, self-efficacy, situational influences, and cognitive processes
modeling
the process of learning a behavior by watching others and then mimicking them (also works to not mimic them)
mirror neurons
fire when we feel an emotion and when we observe someone else feeling that emotion
sensation threshold
minimum magnitude of a stimulus or the minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli that can be perceived
Weber’s Law
minimum just noticeable difference for a stimulus is directly proportional to the magnitude of the original stimulus
25 degrees to 27 degrees is an 8% change
70 degrees to 72 degrees is only a 2.8% change.
depending on the threshold in change, the significance can be detected or not.
signal detection theory
unconscious decision of whether a signal is detectable or not. say a new mother always sleeps through her alarm, but can still awake when her child is crying (almost like selective hearing)
sensory adaptation
when exposed to a stimulus for the first time, the brain is primed, when having multiple exposures, the brain pays less attention to that
the eye (see diagram)
cornea
anterior chamber (aqueous humor)
pupil, iris
posterior chamber, zonular fibers, ciliary muscles
lens (converging lens), suspensory ligament
sclera
choroid
retina
vitreous humor
fovea
hyaloid canal
optic disk (blind spot)
optic nerve
cones
not very sensitive perceive color fine resolution/ good detail 3 pigments: blue, green, and red roughly 5%
rods
highly sensitive perceive black and white poor resolution/ bad detail only one pigment: rhodopsin (black and white) roughly 95%
lasik surgery
reshapes cornea, not lens
brain map (see diagram)
forebrain (olfactory bulb) frontal lobe somatomotor cortex somatosensory cortex parietal lobe (somatosensory cortex) occiptital lobe (visual cortex) temporal lobe (auditory cortex) thalamus (taste center) cerebellum medulla oblongata spinal cord
why do the cells of the retina appear upside down?
the retina is arranged so that the photoreceptors face AWAY from the light and then make connections with several layers of cells that are closer to the source of incoming light. (so light passes through the photoreceptor layer, through the retinal layer to hit retinal ganglion so a signal goes back through to the retina and sent down the photoreceptor’s optic nerve
nearsightedness (myopia)
elongation of the eye (focal point ends before receptors)
severe curvature of cornea
trouble seeing things at a distance
needs diverging lens so focal point goes further back to hit receptors
farsightedness (hyperopia)
eye is too short (focal point ends after receptors)
cornea doesn’t curve enough
trouble seeing things that are close
needs converging lenses so focal point ends further up to hit receptors)
presbyopia
a type of hyperopia
associated with age
why elderly hold things further away to see better
emmetropia
normal eyesight
focus (near object)
when looking at something near, the ciliary muscles contract which causes the lens to become more curved an thick to shorten the focal length to increase refractive power
focus (distant object)
when looking at something far, the ciliary muscles relax and allows for the lens to become more flat which increases focal length to decrease refractive power
layers of retina (see diagram)
rods cones bipolar cells horizontal cells amacrine cells ganglion cells optic nerve fibers (direction?)
optic nerve
each hemisphere of the brain controls 50% of each eye. (not 1 eye each)
optic chiasm
where optic nerves cross
lateral geniculate nucleus
part of the thalamus that relays information from the optic nerve to the visual cortex of the occipital lobe
visual cortex
part of the occipital cortex responsible for visual stimuli
parallel processing
visual system processing different aspects of the visual world in separate streams of information.
feature processing
sensitive processing that has the ability to discriminate among very complex stimuli like faces
outer ear (see diagram)
pinna (earlobe)
external auditory canal
middle ear (see diagram)
tympanic membrane (ear drum) ear bones (malleus, incus, stapes (attaches to oval window))
inner ear (see diagram)
cochlea (oval window and round window)
vestibule
semicircular canals
vestibulocochlear nerve
inner ear cross section (see diagram)
scala vestibuli Reissner's membrane scala media basilar membrane scala tympani
In scala media is:
tectorial membrane
organ or corti, inner hair cell nerves
smell
chemoreceptors bind specific gaseous/ vaporized airborne chemicals
pheremones
specialized orders released by one individual that elicit behavior in the individual upon olfaction
olfactory pathways
- olfactory sensory neurons - located in the olfactory epithelium on the upper nasal cavity
- olfactory nerve - cranial nerve 1
- olfactory bulb - forebrain
- higher order brain centers (amygdala, hippocampus, orbitofrontal cortex, etc.
taste
chemoreceptors that bind dissolved chemicals and ions
taste pathways
- taste buds
- brain stem
- taste center in the thalamus
touch (somatosensation)
touch sensation, is in the parietal lobe
touch, texture, pain, pressure, stretching, temperature, and vibration
kinesthetic sense
body position and the movement of body parts relative to one another
vestibular sense
balance and orientation by responding to changes in linear and tuitional acceleration detected by air cells in the vestibule and the semicircular canals
sensation
physiological
sensory receptor cells and action potentials
perception
psychological
making sense of the signal, influenced by experience, bias, etc.
bottom-up processing
involves taking individual elements and putting them together to make a whole
top-down processing
involves cognitive factors influencing the way in which components are processed
perceptual organization
refers to out ability to use what information we do about an incomplete stimulus, such as depth, form, motion, and constancy to “fill in the blanks” thereby a perceive a whole, continuous picture
Gestalts principles (basics)
- GROUP INDIVIDUAL PARTS of a stimulus together to make a more organized or pleasing form
- ORGANIZE INDIVIDUAL PARTS of a stimulus into familiar patterns
- FILL-IN MISSING PARTS to create a more logical whole
signal pathways (see diagram)
A) The olfactory nerve is an afferent pathway of the somatic division of the PNS.
B) Perception and decision making would occur in a variety of interneurons in the central nervous system.
C) Motor neurons efferent nerve fibers of the somatic division of the PNS.
D) Nocioceptors are
afferent fibers in the somatic division of the peripheral nervous system.
E) The pain signal would be sent to an interneuron of the spinal cord (CNS).
F) The interneuron would synapse on an efferent motor neuron in the somatic division of the PNS.
G) The optic nerve is an afferent pathway of the CNS.
H) Pupil dilation and increased heart rate would result from information travelling in efferent fibers of the CNS to the autonomic division of the PNS.
