3. Principles, Processes, & Concepts Flashcards
What is behavior?
-it has an affect on the environment
-is measurable
-involves movement (physical movement, movement of muscles or glands)
-only occur with living organisms
-includes movement of some part of the organism, displacements in space through time, the requirement of measurable change (that portion of the organism’s interaction with its environment that is characterized by detectable displacements in space through time of some part of the organism & that results in a measurable change in at least one aspect of the environment)
(because a bx involves movement, it must have an effect on the environment)
the Dead Man theory
What is a response?
a single occurrence of behavior
we target bxs but we record responses
What is a response class?
similar bxs that are strengthened or weakened as a result of operant conditioning
What is topography?
the form of a behavior, or what it looks like
What is a functional response class?
behaviors that may differ in topography but are collectively strengthened or weakened by operant conditioning
What is a stimulus class?
a group of stimuli with one or more common properties
e.g., a pen, pencil, and crayon
What is reinforcement?
always increases or maintains behavior
What is punishment?
always decreases behavior
What is positive reinforcement?
- involves the presentation of a stimulus and increase in bx
- stimulus presented –> bx increase
What is negative reinforcement
- involves the removal of a stimulus and increase in bx
- stimulus removed –> bx increases
What is a stimulus change? (Definition of reinforcement)
is a reinforcer if, when made contingent upon a bx, it increases the future probability of that bx
What is positive punishment (Type I)?
- involves presentation of a stimulus and a decrease in bx
- stimulus presented –> bx decreases
What is negative punishment (Type II)?
- the removal/withdrawal of a stimulus and a decrease in bx
- stimulus removed –> bx decreases
What is a stimulus?
- any condition, event, or change in the physical world
- affects the organism’s receptors (vision, hearing, taste, etc.)
- it does not necessarily have a measurable effect on bx
What is a unconditioned reinforcer?
unconditioned and unlearned reinforcers are those that one is born with and are important to the survival of the organism
-unconditioned reinforcer = unlearned reinforcer = primary reinforcers
What are generalized conditioned reinforcers?
- are those that have been associated with various bxs or access to backup reinforcers (which may be primary or secondary reinforcers)
- exemplified by money
- same as generalized reinforcers
- less vulnerable/susceptible to satiation
- not necessarily more or less powerful than primary reinforcers
What is a conditioned reinforcer?
conditioned reinforcers = learned reinforcers = secondary reinforcers
What are generalized reinforcers?
- are associated with a variety of reinforcers (such as a token or point system) in which tokens could be exchanged for a variety of things
- sometimes require a backup reinforcer, enable the same reinforcement to be given to individuals with different preferences, are likely to be reinforcing at any time
What is a functional relation?
you have experimentally demonstrated a relation between an independent and dependent variable (demonstrated that X leads to Y and all other variables that might explain the effect have been controlled or eliminated) -a functional relationship exists when experimental data indicate that changes in an antecedent or consequent stimulus class consistently alter a dimension of a response class -relation between a x and its determining variables -the dependent variable is a function of the independent variable and nothing else -an event can be made to happen by the manipulation of other events (the effective intervention may be a cause)
What is a causal relation?
X AND ONLY X leads to Y (difficult to achieve)
To be a functional relationship, changes in antecedent or consequent events must alter the response class
consistently, but not necessarily each time
If an antecedent stimulus consistently evokes a bx…
- it provides support for a functional relationship
- stimulus control, and
- an establishing operation being in effect
Experimental data indicating that changes in an antecedent or consequent stimulus class consistently alter the dimension of a response class
is a functional relationship
Demonstrated…
an experimentally validated relation between the IV and a DV
Established or caused…
an experimentally validated demonstration that ONLY the IV could bring about the change in the DV
(this is difficult to achieve bc you cannot experimentally demonstrate that there is nothing else could bring about the same results)
What is an operant contingency?
-the stimulus conditions under which a bx will result in a consequence
-stimulus (consequence) occurs as a function of a bx
- A > B > C
(it could be thought of as a contingent probability = given X conditions and Y behavior, Z consequence will follow (on a particular schedule)
What is a respondent (or stimulus-stimulus) contingency?
- one stimulus follows another stimulus (independent of bx)
- the probability of a particular stimulus given another stimulus
- e.g., a dependent relationship between 2 or more stimuli
- the unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus are presented in close temporal relation
What is an S-P?
a stimulus, that when present, weakens bx bc of a history of punishment
What is an SD (stimulus discrimination)?
- a stimulus in the presence of which a bx has been previously -reinforced
- it precedes bx and evokes it
What is an S-Delta?
a stimulus, in the presence of which a bx has NOT been previously reinforced
(note: this is contrasted with a neutral stimulus, which has not predictive value)
- when reinforcement is NOT available
The definition of contingency includes “a dependent relationship between two or more stimuli.” This refers to…
- the relationship between two antecedent stimuli
- necessary conditions to achieve respondent conditioning
- unconditioned and (initially) neutral stimuli
Q: a dependent relationship between a response class and one or more stimulus classes or between two or more stimuli is A: a contingency
What is stimulus control?
changes in bx concurrent with the presentation or removal of a stimulus
e.g., a resident often starts hitting himself when a particular staff person enters the room
What is an EO (Establishing Operation)?
EOs can either have an appetitive or abating function-altering or -evocative effect
- the defining characteristics of an EO are function-altering and evocative
- alter the value of stimuli or events
- defined by its a) alteration in reinforcing effectiveness and b) evocative properties
What is an evocative effect?
- there has to be a bx change differential from when the EO is in effect to when it is not in effect
- either to promote or inhibit responding
- momentary influence on the frequency of a bx
What is a function-altering effect?
-effect on a bx when a stimulus change is made contingent upon it
to enhance or diminish the effectiveness of the reinforcer or punisher; increase the value of the reinforcer; effect on a bx when a stimulus change is made contingent upon it; evidenced by an increase in future responding under similar conditions
-function-altering effect is also demonstrated with a decrease in future responding
The function-altering effect of an EO is…
- nearly always accompanied by an evocative effect
- evidenced by an increase in future responding under similar conditions
- evidenced by a decrease in future responding under similar conditions
To demonstrate an alteration in reinforcing effectiveness (i.e., function-altering effect)…
- there has to be a change in the frequency of the bx in the presence vs. the absence of the reinforcer
- evidenced by a change in rate between reinforcement and non-reinforcement conditions
- this will enable evaluation of reinforcing effectiveness given the EO
The evocative effect of an EO is…
demonstrated when the EO is in place and the bx occurs at a higher rate compared to when the EO is not in place
An addict daily taking drugs to end symptoms of withdrawal exemplifies…
the evocative and function-altering effect of an EO
(people addicted to drugs are reinforced by taking these substances. symptoms of withdrawal is the EO. seeking/taking drugs is the evocative effect. relief of the symptoms of withdrawal is the function-altering effect)
Strictly speaking, reinforcing effectiveness of an EO…
cannot be asserted until a future change in bx is demonstrated
What is a conditioned stimulus?
presenting a neutral stimulus along with an unconditioned stimulus will result in the neutral stimulus acquiring unconditioned stimulus properties. we then call the previously neutral stimulus a conditioned stimulus
What is respondent behavior?
-can sometimes be brought under operant control
-can be elicited (but cannot be shaped)
(eg, a typical UCR is to draw back from a very hot object UCS (hot object); through operant conditioning one can learn to walk on coals)
-phylogenic history
What is an unconditioned stimulus?
it elicits a specific bx without prior conditioning
WHat is ontogenic?
learning that results from an organism’s interaction with his environment, emitted
-operant history
What is phylogenic?
bx that is inherited genetically; elicited
What are synonymous with respondent conditioning?
respondent conditioning, classical conditioning, and Pavlovian conditioning
What does “emitted” refer to?
bx that is a function of antecedent and respondent stimuli (i.e., operant)
What does “elicited” refer to?
bx that is controlled exclusively by antecedent stimuli
What is a reflex?
a response and its associated controlling stimulus
The respondent conditioning process calls for…
- an unconditioned stimulus that reliably elicits an unconditioned response
- a neutral stimulus paired with (or precede) the unconditioned stimulus
- absence of the neutral stimulus when the conditioned stimulus also is absent
What is operant conditioning?
requires a correlation between a bx and a consequence
ie, when a bx occurs, the consequence also is likely to occur
What is avoidance?
the aversive stimulus is prevented by the response
What is an escape contingency?
a negative reinforcement procedure that may result in avoidance of the setting in which the aversive stimulus occurs; occurs in a negative reinforcement procedure, increases the future probability of the bx that precedes it
What is escape?
the aversive stimulus is present and the response results in its termination
In operant conditining,
stimulus controls i shared by antecedent and consequent events
ie, a reinforcing or punishing event gives control to the stimuli present at the time of the response
What is a question?
a mand that specifies a verbal action
What is an extended mand?
mands that cannot be reinforced
what is a superstitious mand?
the reinforcing event has been incident; a collateral events; not a consequence of the mand, but a coincidence (eg, deal me a full house and then an honest dealer happens to deal a full house)
what is a magical mand?
describing the reinforcement that would be appropriate given the current state of deprivation or aversive stimulation; in lay terms - wishful thinking (eg, a desperate cry for water in the middle of the dessert)
what is a mand in literature?
characters in a storymaking requests
verbal responses that specify their reinforcers are
mands
-that is, what is requested is what is to be delivered
mands are primarily under the control of…
EOs (SDs are secondary)
-mands do not occur without a state of deprivation or aversive stimulation
mands are reinforced by…
a characteristic consequence
Mands
- are influenced by the SD
- the word comes from command, demand, and countermand (all forms of request for bx)
What is a tact maintained by?
generalized conditioned reinforcement
what is a tact?
a verbal response under stimulus control of an object, event, relation, or property in the immediate environment
“referring” “labeling” “denoting” “indicating” “describing” do not describe tacts
Mands allow the listener to infer what EO may be affecting the speaker. Tacts…
allow the listener to infer about the environment regardless of what EOs might be affecting the speaker
A verbal operant that allows the listener to infer about the EO affecting the speaker, regardless of the environment is
a mand
Tacting is primarily controlled by…
a nonverbal object, event, relation, or property in the immediate environment
Intraverbals are primarily controlled by
a) controlled by verbal stimuli
b) does not have a point-to-point correspondence with its controlling stimulus
Behavior is controlled by…
delayed outcomes that are probable and sizeable, but not when they are small and cumulative, or improbable
A type of delayed outcome that interferes with bx control is that which is
unlikely
Cumulative outcome
does not occur gradually
-eg, procrastinating on changing your oil on a regular basis will eventually result in engine problems; each instance of procrastination has a small deleterious effect on your engine; it is the cumulative effect of procrastination leads to problems
improbably outcome
-the improbability of the consequence weakens the control yet the significance of the consequence strengthens it
results from a major accident
-eg, getting ill from not washing your hands before meals or getting injured from not wearing your seat belt
One type of delayed outcome that interferes with bx control is
small and cumulative
what is direct-acting contingencies
effective, immediate, rule-goverened bx is NOT involved
what is indirect-acting contingencies
effective, delayed, rule-goverened bx IS involved (aka exerts control over bx)
what is not direct-acting
delayed, may be effective (indirect acting) or ineffective
eg, you ran out of gas once and now you fill the tank when the gauge indicates it is low, with respect to the bx of filling the tank, this is not a direct-acting contingency
outcomes associated with control of bx are
probable and sizeable (large)
A rule is
an establishing operation that establishes rule-breaking as an aversive motivating condition; and is a statement that controls bx is always indirect-acting
eg, stating the rule i will study one hour each day on the certification exam results in an EO. it increases the vale of having studied. the consequence of studying is perhaps positive self-statements and elimination of the EO. not following the rule to study results in guilt and anxiety
eg, obtaining a graduate degree is a probable outcome with significant rewards; rules related to this outcome occasion many hours of hard work that yields little immediate reinforcement
outcomes associated with control of bx are
probable and sizeable. an outcome that is likelt to happen and is significant is far more likely to be associated with bx control than one that is not too likely or is cumulative; highly likely to occcur
rule governed bx is
highly theorhetical
delayed outcomes that are associated with control of bx generally are
large
what is a generalization gradient?
- similar to a stimulus change decrement
- rate of responding as a function of the variation of a property of a controlling stimulus
- it is evidenced by a diminished rate of responding due to a property of a stimulus varying from the original discriminative stimulus
-eg, kid picked up by mom in van; kid will look at all similar looking vans more and other types of vehicles less
what is stimulus generalization?
when training occurs under one set of conditions and later the bx change also occurs under a different set of conditions
-eg, a learner improving her performance under conditions different from those in which the original training occured
what is a stimulus change decrement?
-it is the complement of stimulus generalization and similar to generalization gradient
-a stimulus change decrement occurs when a decrease in responding is due to a change in the SD
-it is most evident when responding decreases as a function of a change in the stimulus conditions (dissimilar to training)
-ie, all responding, given the original and variant forms of the SD, is due to discrimination and generalization
eg, in a group therapy ssn held in the office, a child has attained a rate of 8 interactions per hour, but this decreases to 3 per hor when the ssn is held elsewhere –> there is a stimulus change decrement of 5
what is discrimination?
- responding differently under 2 stimulus conditions indicates that the bx is under discriminative control
- the stimuli that occasion responding conforming closely to the class of stimuli correlated with reinforcement
what is Skinner’s definition of verbal bx?
bx reinforced through the mediation of other persons
- it can be in any form, mode, or medium
- any movement by a speaker that could affect another organism
- defined by its structure and the variables of which it is a function
- eg, talking to yourself
what is generalization?
the spread of the effect of reinforcement from one stimulus correlated with reinforcement to other stimuli
the effect of conditioning on future responding is strongest…
when conditions are the same as those during training
what is response generalization?
change in topography
when a learner exhibits a variety of responses that serve the same function as that having been taught
