3. Learning Theory

Question 1

Define learning

Answer 1

“A process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s behavior or capabilities.”

Question 2

What are the basic learning processes?

Answer 2

- Non-associative learning: response to repeated stimuli

- Classical conditioning: learning what events signal

- Operant conditioning: learning one thing leads to another

- Observational learning: learning from others

Question 3

Define habituation and sensitisation

Answer 3

Habituation is a decrease in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus.

Sensitisation is an increase in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus.

responses happen simultaneously and compete to determine behavior

Question 5

Define classical conditioning

Answer 5

A process that creates an association between a naturally existing stimulus and a previous neutral one

Question 6

What are the two key studies on classical conditioning?

Answer 6

Pavlov’s Dogs

• Study on classical conditioning
• A bell was rung, which initially produced no response in the dogs
• The bell was then rung before feeding the dogs so the bell was associated with food (unconditioned stimulus), to condition the dog to the bell
• After conditioning, the dogs salivated in the presence of the tone (conditioned stimulus), but in the absence of food (unconditioned stimulus)

Watson & Rayner (1920) – Little Albert Experiment

• Study on conditioning/fear learning
• A baby was presented with a fluffy rat and there was no response
• Then, whenever the rat was presented, a loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) would be made to condition the baby to the rat
• After conditioning, the baby cried in the presence of the rat (conditioned stimulus), but in the absence of the loud noise (unconditioned stimulus)

Question 7

Define unconditioned vs. conditioned stimulus

Answer 7

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – a stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response (the unconditioned response) without prior learning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – a stimulus that, through association with a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response that is similar to the original unconditioned response

Question 8

Define unconditioned vs. conditioned response

Answer 8

Unconditioned Response (UCR) – a reflexive or innate response that is elicited by a stimulus (the UCS) without prior learning

Conditioned Response (CR) – a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

Question 9

When is classical conditioning strongest?

Answer 9

• There are repeated CS-UCS pairings
• The UCS is more intense
• The sequence involves forward pairing (i.e. CS -> UCS)
• The time interval between the CS and UCS is short

Question 10

Define stimulus generalisation

Answer 10

“A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus”

• will elicit a CR but in a weaker form (e.g. if Pavlov’s hear a slightly different bell ringing, they will still salivate but not as much)

Question 11

Define stimulus discrimination

Answer 11

“The ability to respond differently to different stimuli”

Question 12

Define extinction

Answer 12

• A process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear

(e.g. if you keep ringing the bell and not giving food to Pavlov’s dogs, they will eventually stop salivating when they hear the bell)

Question 13

What is observational learning?

What does it require?

Answer 13

Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person, or by noting consequences of a person’s actions

• occurs before direct practice is allowed

To be successful requires:

1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Production
4. Motivation
   * Don’t imitate the behavior of everyone - more likely if seen to be rewarded, high status, simillar to us, friendly*

Question 14

Describe the study on observational learning

Answer 14

Bandura (1961) Bobo Doll Experiment

• Study on observational learning
• Children watched adults aggressively beat up a toy doll (for no apparent reason)
• When allowed to play with the doll themselves, the children imitated the adults and aggressively beat up the doll themselves

Question 15

Define operant conditioning

What is Thorndike’s law of effect?

Answer 15

• A process by which behavior is learned and maintained by its consequences

Thorndike’s Law of Effect -

• A response followed by a satisfying consequence will be more likely to occur.
• A response followed by an aversive consequence will become less likely to occur

Question 16

Define the following terms:

• reinforcement
• reinforcer

Answer 16

Reinforcement – a response is strengthened by the outcome that follows it

Reinforcer – the outcome that increases the frequency of a response

Question 17

What are the two types of reinforcers?

Answer 17

Primary Reinforcer – stimuli, such as food and water, that an organism naturally finds reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs

Secondary Reinforcer – stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers

Question 18

Define:

• punishment
• punisher
• operant extinction

Answer 18

Punishment – a response is weakened by an outcome that follows it

Punisher – a consequence that weakens (decreases) the frequency of a response

Operant Extinction – the weakening an eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced

Question 19

What are the two types of reinforcement?

Answer 19

Positive Reinforcement – occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a reinforcer

Negative Reinforcement – occurs when a response is strengthened by the removal (or avoidance) of an aversive stimulus

Positive” and “Negative” refer to presentation or removal of a stimulus, not “good” and “bad”

Question 20

What are the different schedules of partial reinforcement?

Answer 20

Fixed Interval Schedule - reinforcement occurs after a fixed time interval (activity increases as deadline nears)

Variable Interval Schedule - the time interval varies at random around an average (steady activity results)

Fixed Ratio Schedule - reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses (activity slows after reinforcement and then picks up)

Variable Ratio Schedule - reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses, all centered around an average (this gives the greatest activity of all the schedules)

Question 21

What is continuous reinforcement?

Answer 21

Continuous Reinforcement – every instance of behaviour is reinforced

• More rapid learning with continuous reinforcement vs partial reinforcement – because the association is easier to understand
• However, extinguishes more rapidly that partially reinforced responses as the shift to no reinforcement is sudden and easier to understand