1. Social Psychology

Question 1

Define attitude

Answer 1

Attitude: a positive or negative evaluative reaction towards a stimulus such as a person, action, object or concept

Attitude influences behaviours more strongly when situational factors that contradict our attitudes are weak

Question 2

What is the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen 1991)?

Answer 2

Question 3

What is cognitive dissonance?

How can dissonance be resolved?

Answer 3

Dissonance - belief, and behavior contradicting each other

• The feeling of discomfort due to holding two opposing opinions
• For example, someone acknowledging that they smoke, whilst accepting that smoking causes cancer
• The science of cognitive dissonance can be used to our advantage

Resolving dissonance:

- Change behavior: In the case of smoking, this would involve quitting, which might be difficult and thus avoided

- Acquire new information: such as seeking exceptions e.g. “my grandfather smoked all his life and lived to be 96”

- Reduce the importance of cognition: (i.e. beliefs, attitudes) - a person could convince themself that it is better to “live for the moment”

Question 4

When is the message of changing attitudes more effective?

When is it more persuasive?

Answer 4

Message more effective if:

• Reaches recipient
• Is attention-grabbing
• Easily understood and remembered
• Relevant and important

More persuasive messengers are:

• Credible e.g. doctors
• Trustworthy e.g. objective
• Appealing e.g. well-presented

Question 5

What is framing? Give examples

Answer 5

- Refers to whether a message emphasises the benefits or losses of that behaviour

• When we want people to take up behaviours aimed at detecting health problems or illness (e.g. HIV testing) loss-framed messages may be more effective
• When we want people to take up behaviours aimed at promoting prevention behaviours (e.g. condom use) gain-framed messages may be more effective
• Loss frame messages - more effective for screening measures*
• Gain-framed messages - more effective for prevention behaviours*

Question 6

Define prejudice, stereotype and discrimination

Answer 6

Prejudice: to judge, often negatively, without having relevant facts, usually about a group or its individual members

Stereotype: generalisations made about a group of people or members of that group, such as race, ethnicity, or gender. Or more specific such as different medical specialisations (e.g. surgeons)

Discrimination: behaviours that follow from negative evaluations or attitudes towards members of particular groups

Question 7

Define conformity

Answer 7

Conformity: the adjustment of individual behaviours, attitudes and beliefs to a group standard

Question 8

What are the factors that predict/influence conformity?

Answer 8

• - Group size - conformity increases with group size up to 5 members (no further increases after that)
• - Presence of dissenter/unanimity - presence of someone who disagrees with the group
• - Culture - greater in collectivistic cultures
• - Cohesion
• - Status
• - Public response
• - Lack of prior commitment

Question 9

What is the Asch (1956) study of conformity?

Answer 9

Study on conformity

• Participants were given a very simple ‘vision test’ comparing lengths of lines and the subject was put in a room with many experimenters who all chose the wrong answer for the vision test
• The majority of subjects conformed with the group consensus
• In the control group (the subject undertook the vision test alone), less than 1% conformed

Question 10

Define obedience

Answer 10

Obedience: the compliance with commands given by an authority figure

Question 11

What are the factors influencing obedience?

Answer 11

• • Remoteness of the individual
• • Closeness and legitimacy of the authority figure
• • Diffusion of responsibility - obedience increases when someone else does the dirty work/takes the blame
• • Not personal characteristics

Question 12

What is the Miligram (1974) study of obedience?

Answer 12

Study on obedience

• There was one ‘learner’ and one ‘teacher’
• An actor was placed in an electric chair and was asked questions to test their memory
• The participants of the study were asked to give electric shocks of increasing intensity as the actor got more and more questions wrong
• Even when the shock level reached lethal levels and the actor seemed unconscious or dead, the majority of participants still obeyed the command to deliver a shock

Question 13

Define social loafing

Answer 13

The tendency for people to expend less individual effort when working in a group than when working alone

Question 14

What are the factors influencing social loafing:

• when is it most likely to occur
• whar does it depend on
• when may if disappear

Answer 14

More likely to occur when:

• • The person believes that individual performance is not being monitored
• • The task (goal) or the group has less value or meaning to the person
• • The person generally displays low motivation to strive for success
• • The person expects that other group members will display high effort

Depends on gender and culture:

• • Occurs more strongly in all-male groups
• • Occurs more often in individualistic cultures

Social loafing may disappear when:

• • Individual performance is monitored
• • Members highly value their group or the task goal
• • Groups are smaller
• • Members are of similar competence

Question 15

What is the collective effort model?

Answer 15

On a collective task, people will put forth only as much effort as they expect is needed to reach their goal.

Question 16

Define Groupthink

Answer 16

The tendency of group members to suspend critical thinking because they are striving to seek agreement

Question 17

What are the factors influencing groupthink:

• when is it most likely to occur

Answer 17

Most likely to occur when a group:

• Is under high stress to reach a decision
• Is insulated from outside input
• Has a directive leader
• Has high cohesiveness

Question 18

What are the symptoms of groupthink?

Answer 18

• Direct pressure applied to people who express doubt
• Mind guards – people who prevent negative information from reaching the group.
• Members display self-censorship and withhold doubts.
• An illusion of unanimity is created

Question 19

Define group polarisation

Answer 19

The tendency of people to make decisions that are more extreme when they are in a group as opposed to a decision made alone or independently

Question 20

Define ‘the bystander effect’

Answer 20

The presence of multiple bystanders inhibits each person’s tendency to help; often due to social comparison or diffusion of responsibility

Question 21

What is the 5-step bystander decision process?

Answer 21

1. Notice the event

2. Decide if the event is an emergency: social comparison – look at how others are responding

3. Assume the responsibility to intervene: diffusion of responsibility – believing others will help

4. Self-efficacy in dealing with the situation

5. Decision to help – based on a cost-benefit analysis, e.g. danger.

Question 22

How can the bystander effect be overcome?

Answer 22

Reduce restraints on helping

• Reduce ambiguity and increase responsibility
• Enhance guilt and concern for self-image

Socalise altruism

• Teaching moral inclusion
• Modelling helpful behaviour
• Attributing helpful behaviour to altruistic motives
• Education about barriers to helping

Question 23

What is the Darley and Latane (1968) study of the bystander effect?

Answer 23

Study on the Bystander Effect

• Participants were invited into the lab under the pretext that they were taking part in a discussion about ‘personal problems’ over the radio
• Then one student in the adjacent room had a ‘seizure’
• When the participants were by themselves, the majority of subjects helped
• But when the subjects were in a group of 4, only around 30% helped
• When in groups of more than 4, almost no one helped

Question 24

What are the different Kurt Lewin leadership styles?

Answer 24

Autocratic or Authoritarian Style – all decisions are made by a leader

• All decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with dictator leaders. They do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates.

Participative or Democratic Style

– leaders make decisions after consulting a group

• Favours decision-making by the group as shown, such as a leader gives instruction after consulting the group. They can win the co-operation of their group and can motivate them effectively and positively.

Laissez-faire or ‘Free Reign’ Style

– leaves the group entirely to themselves

• A free-rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself as shown; such a leader allows maximum freedom to subordinates, i.e., they are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods.

Question 25

What are the advantages vs disadvantages of each of the leadership styles?

Answer 25