3. Learning theories Flashcards
Define learning
Learning is the process of acquiring new and lasting information or behaviours.
Identify the type of behaviours learnt by classical conditioning
Classical conditioning is learning involving reflexive behaviours, below the level of conscious awareness, rather than voluntary behaviours.
Define classical conditioning
The process of learning a behaviour where an unrelated stimulus becomes associated with a desired response, leading to that stimulus alone resulting in the desired response.
Preparedness
Classical conditioning
Conditioned responses that work well with the organism’s instinctive survival behaviours come easily as the organism is more prepared to learn or adapt to that behaviour.
Acquisition
Classical conditioning
Aquisition is when a conditioned response comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus. During aquisition a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Extinction
Classical conditioning
Decrease in CR when CS is presented alone and not followed by the UCS for a long duration.
Spontaneous recovery
Classical conditioning
Rapid regain of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a pause or break.
Generalisation
Classical conditioning
Generalising a CR to a stimulus that closely resembles the original CS.
Aim of Pavlov’s Dog
To study and demonstrate the concept of classical conditioning.
Data collection tool for Pavlov’s Dog
A rotating drum that recorded the rates of salivation.
Procedure for Pavlov’s Dog (before and during conditioning)
The dogs were presented with food, and they salivated. Pavlov introduced the sound of a metronome which he presented the dogs with food.
Procedure for Pavlov’s Dog (after conditioning)
After a number of trials, he presented the sound of the metronome on its own, which caused the dogs to salivate.
Key findings of Pavlov’s Dog
The dog had learned an association between the sound of the metronome and the food, and a new behaviour had been learned.
Contributions of Pavlov’s Dog
Classical conditioning can be used in advertisements. There are many clinically related uses of classical conditioning, such as in drug rehabilitation.
Criticisms/limitations of Pavlov’s Dog
Can’t exactly be generalised to humans who have different cognitive processes. Also cruel to the dogs, breaching ethical guidelines for animals.
Aim of Little Albert
To determine if a child who previously had no fear of a stimulus could be conditioned into fearing it.
Procedure of Little Albert (before and during conditioning)
Albert was shown various neutral stimuli including a white rat, a rabbit, and a monkey. A hammer was struck against a steel bar behind his head, and the sudden noise would cause him to cry.
Procedure of Little Albert (after conditioning)
After a number of trials, Albert only had to see the white rat to start crying and would attempt to crawl away.
Key findings of Little Albert
The study showed that it was possible to create a phobia using classical conditioning. After a week, Albert’s fear of rats was less severe.
However, if the conditioning process was repeated the association was renewed, even after a month.
Contributions of Little Albert
The study demonstrated that classical conditioning works in humans.
Criticisms/limitations of Little Albert
An objective way to measure Albert’s reactions was not developed, and instead subjective interpretations were recorded.
Protection from harm in Little Albert
Albert was subjected to emotional distress and the experiment had the potential to cause lifelong harm.
Informed consent in Little Albert
There was no informed consent obtained from Albert’s parents, who were misled about the true aim of the study.
Debriefing in Little Albert
Debriefing never occurred. Watson and Rayner didn’t attempt to extinguish Albert’s conditioned fear.
Identify the learning theory that forms the basis of systematic desensitisation
Classical conditioning
Define behaviour modification
Systematic desensitisation
A means of changing behaviour through various techniques used to replace undesirable behaviours with desirable ones.
Define phobia
Systematic desensitisation
Excessive and persistent fear of a specific object, situation or activity that is generally not harmful.
Steps in systematic desensitisaion
- Relaxation training
- Develop an anxiety hierarchy
- Graded exposure with relaxation techniques
Relaxation training
The patient is taught a deep muscle relaxation technique and breathing exercises. E.g., control over breathing.
Anxiety hierarchy
A list of least fear-provoking situation/stimuli to most fear provoking is developed.
Graded exposure and types of exposure
A psychologist gradually introduces levels of the anxiety hierarchy with relaxation techniques until the patient feels comfortable enough to proceed.
Types of exposure include direct contact and imagined exposure.
Advantages of systematic desensitisation
It’s specific to the individual. Relaxation techniques can help with other anxiety issues.
Limitations of systematic desensitisation
It can be difficult for some individuals to visualise their phobia. Requires a positive mind frame from participant.
Define operant conditioning
The learning of behaviour through association with reward and punishment, explained by its consequence.
Identify the types of behaviours learnt through operant conditioning
Voluntary behaviours
A of the three phase model
Operant conditioning
Antecedent - a stimulus that occurs before the behaviour.
B of the three phase model
Operant conditioning
Behaviour - the action undertaken by the operant due to the antecedent.
C of the three phase model
Operant conditioning
The consequence to the behaviour.
Reinforcement/reinforcer
Operant conditioning
A reinforcer is anything that increases the likelihood that a specific behaviour will occur more often when the reinforcer is paired with it.
Punishment
Operant conditioning
Punishment decreases or eliminates the likelihood that a behaviour will occur when the punishment is paired with the behaviour.
Positive reinforcement
Operant conditioning
The addition of a desirable stimulus following a behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour.
Negative reinforcement
Operant conditioning
The removal of an undesirable stimulus following a behaviour which increases the likelihood of that behaviour.
Positive punishment
Operant conditioning
The addition of an undesirable stimulus following a behaviour which reduces the likelihood of that behaviour.
Negative punishment
Operant conditioning
The removal of a desirable stimulus following a behaviour which reduces the likelihood of that behaviour.
Limitations of using punishment
Operant conditioning
Punished behaviour is suppressed and may return when punishment isn’t present. Creates fears that can generalise to undesirable behaviours, e.g., fear of school.
Variable ratio schedule
Operant conditioning
Reinforcement that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses. The most powerful reinforcement schedule.
E.g., a person doesn’t know when they’ll hit the jackpot so they keep going.
Fixed interval schedule
Operant conditioning
Rewards a learner for the first correct response after a defined period of time. Causes high amount of responding near the end of the interval but less immediately after.
E.g., getting paid after working 30 days.
Fixed ratio schedule
Operant conditioning
Rewards a particular response only after a defined number of demonstrations of that response. Produces a high response rate, meaning people might become satiated.
E.g., for every 10 perfumes sold receive a cash bonus.
Variable interval schedule
Operant conditioning
Reinforcement that rewards a correct response after an unpredictable amount of time.
E.g., checking social media accounts.
Law of Effect - Thorndike
Any behaviour followed by a pleasant consequence is likely to be repeated, while any behaviour followed by an unpleasant consequence is likely to be stopped.
Aim of Law of Effect
To understand the influence of reinforcement on the behaviour of cats seeking to escape from a puzzle box to get food.
Sample of Law of Effect
13 cats
Procedure of Law of Effect
A hungry cat was placed in a box, with fish outside to encourage it to escape. Initially the cat learnt to open the box by trial and error, then chose to use the door opening mechanism. TIme was recorded.
Key findings of Law of Effect
In successive trials the time the cat took to escape the box lessened.
Criticisms/limitations of Law of Effect
Distressing to cats. Learned behaviour studies in animals cannot be generalised to human behaviour as we have different cognitive and social characteristics.
Aim of Superstitious Pigeons
To demonstrate the process of operant conditioning in pigeons.
Sample of Superstitious Pigeons
8 pigeons
Procedure of Superstitious Pigeons (before)
Pigeon’s body weight was reduced by 25%, increasing hunger. Pigeon was placed in a skinner box (experimental cage with a timer and food hopper).
Procedure of Superstitious Pigeons (during)
A timer released food to the pigeon from a hopper at set time intervals (fixed interval schedule of reinforcement). The pigeon would eat for the 5 seconds that the hopper remained open.
Procedure of Superstitious Pigeons (after)
Whatever unique behaviour the pigeon engaged in when the hopper was opened was reinforced, such as turning clockwise or pecking at the ground.
Key findings of Superstitious Pigeons
6/8 pigeons were conditioned to display a unique behaviour in what appeared to be a cause and effect relationship between behaviour of the pigeon and the release of food. Shorter intervals were most effective.
Contributions of Superstitious Pigeons
A few accidental connections between a behaviour and a favourable consequence is enough to set up and maintain the behaviour despite many unreinforced instances.
Criticisms/limitations of Superstitious Pigeons
Harm to pigeons. Learned behaviour studies in animals cannot be generalised to human behaviour as we have different cognitive and social characteristics.
Identify the learning theory that forms the basis of token economies
Token economies use the operant conditioning principles of reinforcement to strengthen a desired behaviour.
Tokens and secondary reinforcers
Tokens are given so that the desired behaviour is immediately rewarded as soon as it is exhibited. A set number of tokens are exchanged for secondary reinforcers such as games and privileges.
Advantages of token economies
Tokens can be adapted to suit the learner, for example to their age or ability. The secondary reinforcer can be changed so the target behaviour continues.
Disadvantages of token economies
If the learner thinks the tokens are too hard to earn, they’ll lose motivation. Reinforcement only applies within the place using the token economy, meaning the behaviour might only occur there.
Outline Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Bandura emphasised the importance of the social environment on learning and the acquirement of new behaviours. Learning does not always lead to behaviour change
Outline the concept of observational learning
Observational learning is learning by watching others and choosing whether to imitate them.
Outline the term model in observational learning
A model is someone who serves as an example in observational learning.
Outline the concept of intrinsic motivation in observational learning
Observers must have a reason to learn what is being observed. Intrinsic motivation refers to the internal factors that affect motivation, such as personal interest and satisfaction from the behaviour.
Attention
Observational learning
The observer must pay attention to the skill for learning to occur. The extent to which the learner observes the behaviour.
Retention
Observational learning
Observers must have the capacity (education/ maturity) to retain the information received.
Reproduction
Observational learning
Observers must have the skills to replicate the behaviour.
Motivation
Observational learning
Observers must have a reason to learn what is being observed.
Reinforcement
Observational learning
Observer must be rewarded for displaying the behaviour.
Vicarious reinforcement
Individuals are more likely to engage in a particular behaviour if they have observed another person receive reinforcement for it.
Strengths of Social Learning Theory
Supported by empirical evidence gathered from the Bobo Doll experiment. Emphasises the importance of social environment on learning.
Limitations of Social Learning Theory
Doesn’t recognise the role of biological processes on behaviour such as genetics and brain development. Doesn’t account for all behaviours, such as criminality.
Aim of Bobo Doll
To determine whether children who see an adult behaving aggressively will imitate the aggressive behaviour.
Sample of Bobo Doll
36 boys and 36 girls aged 3 to 4 years old. From the nursery school of the university Bandura worked at (Stanford University).
Procedure of Bobo Doll (before)
The children were allocated into groups of similar levels of aggression, and a matched pair design was used to allocate them into control and experimental groups.
Procedure of Bobo Doll (modelling)
The children were split into three groups who individually watched a model or not (aggressive, non-aggressive, and no model) in a room for 10 minutes.
Procedure of Bobo Doll (aggression arousal)
Children were taken to another room with toys, but when they started to play with them the experimenter told them the toys were her best ones and for someone else.
Procedure of Bobo Doll (test for delayed imitation)
The next room contained non-aggressive toys (tea set, teddy bears) and aggressive toys (mallet, dart gun). In this room for 20 minutes and every 5 seconds their behaviour was recorded.
Key findings of Bobo Doll
Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive responses than children who observed the non-aggressive model or no model.
Key findings of Bobo Doll (girls)
The girls who watched the aggressive model were more likely to imitate physical aggression to the doll if their model was male and more verbal aggression to the doll if their model was female.
Contributions of Bobo Doll
Children learn social behaviour such as aggression through the process of observational learning. The study has many important implications for the effects of media violence on children.
Low ecological validity of Bobo Doll
Child observer and the adult model are strangers who have no interactions throughout the experiment. Observational learning is more likely to occur with someone the child knows and sees often.
Novelty value of Bobo Doll
Children who hadn’t played with the doll before were 5 times more likely to show aggressive behaviour than children who had.
Demonstrations measured immediately in Bobo Doll
Demonstrations are measured almost immediately, so it’s hard to determine if such a single exposure can have long-term effects.
