2C - Resource Security Flashcards
Renewable (flow) resources
Renewable resources are those that can be replenished with the passage of time and should therefore always be available for humans to use.
non-renewable (stock) resources
These types of resources have been created by long-term physical processes over geological timescales and therefore they are finite and exhaustible
What is a resource?
‘Resources’ include all the deposits of a mineral/commodity - those that are discovered, undiscovered or unviable.
What is a reserve?
‘Reserves’ are those parts of the ‘resources’ that can be economically, technically and legally extracted.
Resource frontier
3
A location where a resource is brought into production for the first time
The boundary between exploited areas and areas considered too difficult to exploit under current political and technological conditions.
Resource frontiers are changing as technology advances to allow new areas to be exploited.
Resource peak
The time of maximum rate of production of a resource
Hubbert curve
A bell-shaped curve representing oil use and projecting both when world oil production will reach a maximum and when we will run out of oil
What factors determine when a resource peaks?
4
The availability and discovery of reserves
Development of new technologies
Demand for the resource (may decrease or increase suddenly as a result of research into a material or new uses that are found for a material). How will electric vehicles affect the demand for oil in ten year’s time?
Grade of available resources
Primary source of energy definition
Primary energy is released from a direct source as a naturally occurs, e.g., burning coal generates heat
Primary sources of energy
coal, oil, natural gas, biomass (may also be secondary), uranium
Secondary source of energy definition
The product of primary energy, mostly electricity
Secondary sources of energy
Solar, wind, wave, tidal, geothermal
Advantages of coal
7
energy-dense
plentiful
easy to exploit by surface mining
technological demands are small
economic costs are low
easy to handle and transport
needs little refining
Disadvantages of coal
4
- severe land disturbance and water pollution
- fine particle and toxic mercury emissions threaten human health
- emits large amounts of CO2 and other air pollutants when produced and burned
- Environmental mitigation such as carbon capture and storage have a negative impact on energy-efficiency
Advantages of oil
3
- Indispensable in road transport and petrochemical industries
- Leading tradable commodity
- Flexible, easy to transport fuel
Disadvantages of oil
5
- Greenhouse gas production
- Oil spills from tanks/pipes can kill wildlife.
- high price volatility
- Geopolitical tensions in areas with the largest reserves
- The market is dominated by leading oil producing countries and large TNCs
Advantages of natural gas
4
- Contains fewer impurities and therefore emits almost no sulfur dioxide or particulates
- Emits only 60% as much carbon dioxide as coal
- Flexible and efficient fuel for power and heat generation
- Increasing proved reserves from unconventional sources
disadvantages of natural gas
6
- when unburned, methane escapes into the atmosphere
- exploration of natural gas has the potential of contaminating groundwater
- Reserves increasingly offshore or in more remote areas
- Large investment requirement for gas transport and distribution
- Increasingly long supply routes with high infrastructure cost
- Fracking is very water intensive
advantages of nuclear energy
6
- Low carbon footprint
- Safety always improving
- Technology becoming more affordable and accessible for NICs
- Highly energy-efficient fuel with new reactors even more efficient
- Relatively large reserves of uranium
- Excellent replacement for fossil fuels in generating thermally sourced energy
disadvantages of nuclear energy
7
- High investment and compliance costs in constructing nuclear power stations
- Public concerns about operation and radioactive waste disposal
- Potential dangers and impacts of nuclear accident
- Difficulty in finding suitable sites
- Plutonium is a by-product which can be used in nuclear weapons- so can cause geopolitical tensions or threats of terrorism
- Lack of support from local public
- Power stations can take decades to build
advantages of solar energy
4
- Costs are decreasing rapidly
- Large potential in desert areas
- Can be used on a domestic scale
- Plentiful Silica resources
disadvantages of solar energy
3
- Not very efficient yet (15 to 20%)
- Effectiveness dependent on climate and time of the year and day
- Require special metals which need to be mined
advantages of wind energy
5
- Low maintenance and running costs
- Can be used all year round
- Plenty of suitable sites
- Quick installation
- Option for offshore
disadvantages of wind energy
3
- Bird life can be affected
- Weather dependent
- NIMBYism
Advantages of HEP
4
- Low operating costs
- No waste or carbon dioxide emissions
- Proven technology
- Can top up supply in periods of peak demand
disadvantages of HEP
3
- Dams have high construction costs
- Requires large amounts of land so causes conflict, for example, relocation of populations
- Environmental impacts on drainage basin and microclimate effects
Global pattern of energy consumption
Global energy consumption varies, but is generally higher in northern hemisphere countries, which are more developed.
Relationship between GDP and energy consumption
4
- Wealthy countries tend to consume lots of energy per person because they can afford to.
- Poorer countries consume less energy per person as they are less able to afford it.
- Some countries don’t consume much energy per person, they consume a lot overall because they have large populations.
- Some countries don’t consume as much energy per person but consume a lot overall because they use energy for manufacturing.
What 3 physical factors affect energy supply (volume and quality)
Geology
Climate
Drainage
How does geology affect energy supply?
6
Geology affects fossil fuel supply
Coal is a sedimentary rock - it forms when plant material undergoes specific geological processes such as burial and heating.
Coal that has undergone the most change is the highest quality (anthracite), while coal that has been changed least is the lowest quality (lignite)
Oil and natural gas need specific geological conditions in order to form and be stored
Both gas and oil travel upwards through pores in rocks, until they meet a layer of impermeable rock and become trapped - they are found where impermeable ‘cap’ rock overlies permeable ‘reservoir’ rock
Geology is also important for geothermal energy production - many geothermal power stations are located in places where the earth’s crust is thin, so molten rock is closer to the surface.
How does climate affect energy supply?
5
Wind - Wind energy can only be generated in locations with an average annual wind speed above 5.5m/s.
Very high winds can damage wind turbines, so most turbines stop working automatically if winds get above about 25 m/s.
Hydroelectric power (HEP) - HEP relies on large flows of water to generate electricity. In areas with low rainfall or frequent droughts, it cannot produce reliable power.
Solar - Solar power is generated using sunlight, so it is most effective in places with little cloud cover.
Climate also affects the production of non-renewable sources. E.g. mines can become flooded and access roads impassable in areas with a very high rainfall, and offshore oil rigs can be damaged by storms.
How does drainage affect energy supply?
4
The drainage network of a country (e.g. the number of rivers and the size and shape of drainage basins) affects the volume of energy that can be generated using hydroelectric power (HEP).
HEP generation is most effective if there is a large volume of water flowing inconsistently down the river, and a large drop in elevation from the reservoir to the water outlet.
It therefore works best in drainage basins with large rivers and fairly steep terrain.
However, steep terrain it can make dam construction difficult or expensive.
How does energy production and use affect relationships between countries?
3
Countries that produce lots of a particular type of energy might form alliances, e.g. OPEC is a group of countries that work together to influence the global supply and price of oil
Because energy and resources are unevenly distributed across the world, conflict can arise between countries trying to obtain the resources they need
The country’s financial situation or existing conflicts with other countries can reduce its ability to trade energy.
Geopolitical issues linked to energy production, trade, and use:
5
Global energy use is increasing and fossil fuel reserves decreasing.
Energy crisis:
Many people believe we’re coming to an ‘energy crisis’, so governments are very concerned about how to secure energy supplies for the future
Political instability:
Many of the largest reserves of oil and gas are in areas that are politically or economically unstable, e.g. Iran. This means that energy supplies to many countries are at risk of being disrupted
Environment:
As energy consumption increases, so does the impact of the energy use on the environment.
International agreements, e.g. Kyoto Protocol, try to address these problems, but these can also lead to political conflict environmental protection clashes with other national interests, e.g. economic growth.
Arctic:
The Arctic also has large oil reserves, however this is unowned, so tensions are arising between nations attempting to claim areas of the Arctic as their own
How does energy production and consumption lead to globalisation?
Energy production and consumption are unevenly distributed - energy needs to be transferred between countries, increasing links between them
How does energy price cause competing national interests?
2
The country selling the energy will want to charge as much as possible, whereas the country buying will want to pay as little as possible
influences the potential market for an energy resource + determines whether extracting the resource is economically viable.
How does environment vs development cause competing national interests?
4
Development > environment:
Many countries exploit energy resources in order to increase economic development but, exploitation can damage the environment.
Exploitation abroad:
Countries may want to exploit energy resources in another country (China developing oil reserves in Africa) or in the global commons.
Global commons:
In some cases, the global community may step in to prevent large-scale damage to fragile environments (Antarctica treaty bans development there).
Future:
As resources dwindle, pressure to exploit the new areas is increasing.
How does energy security cause competing national interests?
Countries with high energy consumption may pressure countries with large natural resources to develop and export them in order to meet their energy needs
How does political instability cause competing national interests?
Countries might avoid becoming dependent on countries that have an unstable government, as conflict can interrupt supply of energy resources.
TNC involvement in energy
3
Involved in all stages:
Most energy TNCs are involved in all stages of oil and gas production, from the exploration of potential reserves, through refining crude oil to usable product, to selling it to consumers around the world.
Power:
Because of their wealth and control of valuable resources, Energy TNCs are very powerful and can influence the global economy, politics, and the environment
State-owned:
Some energy TNCs are partially or completely state-owned - Gazprom is partially owned by the Russian government.
State-owned TNCs can exert global influence, such as shutting privately owned TNCs out of energy markets or assist in building global alliances.
Strategies of increasing energy supply:
Oil and gas exploration issues
3
Tech:
As reserves of oil and gas begin to diminish, new reserves and technologies are being developed to support further resource exploitation.
Exploitation faster then discovery:
Currently new reserves are being discovered at a lower rate than they are being exploited.
Environment:
Environmental groups suggest that fossil fuel exploration should stop immediately and renewable energy used instead
Strategies of increasing energy supply:
Fracking process
3
Fracking is a new source of energy that involves exploiting natural gas found in shale reserves across the world.
Water, chemicals and sand are pumped into the ground to break up the shale, access the hydrocarbons and force them to the surface.
Horizontal drilling helps to remove the gas reserves
Strategies of increasing energy supply:
Fracking advantages
3
Less polluting than coal or oil
Could provide boost to the economy
In the UK, the Royal Academy of Engineers believe we can make fracking safe
Strategies of increasing energy supply:
Fracking disadvantages
4
Wastewater needs treating due to chemical contents
May pollute groundwater aquifers. In the USA the water has become flammable due to pollution by fracking
Earthquakes of low magnitude may occur, though they are not usually strong enough to pose a risk to humans. They may damage fracking infrastructure, causing further leakages
The IPCC suggest it would be irresponsible to use shale gas
How can energy consumption be managed?
3
Shifting a countries’ energy mix away from low efficiency sources such as coal, to more efficient resources such as nuclear power.
Additionally, energy consumption may be managed by the inclusion of subsidies from governments that provide financial aid to economic sectors (or renewable technologies) to make them more affordable and encourage their use
Businesses receive incentives for improving their environmental credibility - As a result, more businesses are investing in green technology to save their business money
Possible Resource
These are the resources and thought to exist, but haven’t been sampled (based on knowledge of local geology)
Inferred Resource
These are resources that have been identified but haven’t been measured (Due to limited samples of local geology)
Indicated Reserve
The size of the reserve has been partly measured, and the measurements have been used to estimate the actual extent.
Measured Reserve
The size of the reserve has been measured and is known accurately.
5 stages of resource development
Exploration
Exploitation
Depletion
Development (sometimes goes back to exploitation)
Exhaustion
5 stages of resource development
Stage 1
Exploration
Locating a potential new resource and evaluating whether it is viable to extract, e.g. by sampling and surveying the local area
5 stages of resource development
Stage 2
Exploitation
Extracting the resource, preparing it for use, and transporting it to where it will be used
5 stages of resource development
Stage 3
Depletion
The resource begins to run out
5 stages of resource development
Stage 4
Development
As yields decrease, new methods of extraction may be developed to prolong the life of the resource
5 stages of resource development
Stage 5
Exhaustion
Eventually, the resource becomes so limited that it is not physically possible or economically viable to extract any more
How can stock resources be made more sustainable?
4
Using less of each resource
Increasing rates of reuse or recycling to minimise the amount of new materials that are needed
Finding new reserves or new ways of extracting resources - This often happens as technology advances
Finding alternatives to each resource
How can flow resources be made more sustainable?
Can’t be used more quickly than they are renewed, or in greater quantities than are available.
What is an EIA?
5
An Environmental Impact Assessment
Undertaken before a new development is started.
Used to assess the potential environmental effects of the development, as well as related social, economic, and cultural impacts
Used when planning a new resource development
Widely used in developed countries, but are often used less strictly in developing countries - can lead to the developments going ahead with little or no consideration of their possible impacts
5 Steps of EIAs
- Assessing potential impacts (damage to habitats, pollution, health impacts, etc.)
- Identifying how any negative impacts can be managed or reduced
- Looking at alternatives to see whether there are less damaging options
- Making a decision about whether the project can go ahead, and under what conditions
- Monitoring the development to assess whether the impacts are in line with those predicted
Water availability
5
Some countries have lots of water:
Brazil - annual rainfall is high
Canada, New Zealand - annual rainfall is high, and low or moderate temperatures limit evaporation
Australia - wealthy enough to invest in schemes to increase water supply, e.g. desalination
Water availability is much lower in other areas:
Egypt - arid climate and inadequate water treatment facilities
Jordan - arid climate + over abstraction of water upstream
Water Demand
4
Some countries have high demand for water:
US, Argentina - lots of farming, mining, and industry, which use lots of water
Australia - high domestic use, and lots of farming
Other countries use much less water:
Angola, Papua New Guinea - poor water infrastructure, high prices
Mongolia - limited industry, farming is herding of nomadic livestock - doesn’t use much water
Why is global demand for water rising?
2
Population Growth:
More people means more water needed for drinking, washing, etc.
The growing population also means that demand for food, electricity and other goods increases - producing these uses water.
Economic Development:
As countries develop, energy use increases and manufacturing grows - use lots of water.
As people’s wealth increases, they can afford more water intensive appliances.
What causes water stress?
2
If demand for water exceeds supply
Or
If water is not of high enough quality to use
Significant water stress is most likely in areas with high population density and unreliable or low water supplies
Why is water trade important?
Ensures adequate supply in countries with low water supply
How can water trade occur?
3
Can be a trade of physical supplies:
Singapore has very limited natural water reserves so ensures adequate water supply by importing around half of the water it needs from Malaysia
Water Transfer:
Moving water from areas where there is plenty to areas where there is not enough, e.g. Spain transfers large amounts of water from the Tagus River Basin to areas in the dry south-east
Rights to extract water can be bought and sold
How can water distribution cause Geopolitical issues?
4
Poorer countries in dry areas struggle to afford to import enough water to build desalination plants, meaning they can’t obtain enough water to meet demand
Changes upstream can have major impacts downstream:
Over-abstraction can result in low flows downstream, industry can cause pollution, farming can increase soil erosion and suspend sediment concentration.
Many rivers cross international boundaries:
River Nile flows through 9 countries
Can give upstream countries power over downstream countries which can cause disputes
Climate change:
Reducing water availability in some already water-stressed countries - there are disagreements on how to resolve climate change - the US pulled out of the Paris Agreement in 2017
4 Strategies to increase water supply
Water Diversion and Transfer
Water Catchment
Water storage
Desalination
Strategies to increase water supply:
Water Diversion and Transfer
4
Water diversion involves changing the course of a river so it flows to a different area - in 1960s, rivers flowing into the Aral Sea were diverted to irrigate desert crops - now the sea is 10% of its original size
Water transfer schemes involve moving water from areas of surplus to areas of shortage - usually done through pipes, tunnels, canals, and aqueducts.
Most of Birmingham’s water supply comes from the Elan Valley in mid-Wales
Water transfer has the potential to increase water in the receiving area, but also increase water stress for the are that the water is diverted away from
Infrastructure needed is expensive to construct and maintain
Strategies to increase water supply:
Water Catchment
7
Means collecting water for use
Rainwater harvesting is an example of a water catchment scheme - rainfall is intercepted before it reaches the ground, and stored in tanks
In Bermuda, every house is built with a stepped roof
Wetland restoration improves the supply and quality of the water by filtering it
Afforestation can have similar benefits and helps create wildlife habitats
Farmers shifting to arable farming to reduce runoff and increase infiltration
Potentially the most sustainable method of increasing water supply as it aims to restore the natural environment through the process of rewilding.
Strategies to increase water supply:
Water Storage
3
Water can be stored during times of surplus
Building a dam across a river valley traps water, creating a reservoir. This is filled during periods of extended rainfall and released in drier periods,
Reservoirs can increase water security, but they can also flood agricultural land and drown settlements - causing conflict
Strategies to increase water supply:
Desalination
5
Desalination is the removal of salt from seawater so that it can be used as a water source
High energy demand, but is viable in desert countries where other options don’t exist
Expensive due to the advanced technology involved
Causes environmental damage if it sucks up marine life and may pollute other groundwater
Could be made more sustainable if renewables were used to power the plants
Strategies to manage water consumption:
Domestic + business
6
Take showers instead of baths
Water efficient appliances - shower heads, washing machines, dishwashers
Adding a displacement bag to the cistern on your toilet or buying a water-efficient toilet
Water meter can be fitted which charges users for the exact amount of water they use - encourages people to use less water.
Fix leaks
Wastewater reuse
Strategies to manage water consumption:
Agriculture
4
Farmers can install drip pipes that direct water to exactly where it’s needed, and collect storm water for irrigation
Farmers can change their practices by watering crops early in the morning to reduce water loss through evaporation
Genetically Modified Crops - Crops which are tolerant of dry and saline conditions
Plasticulture - Plastics are used to help reduce water usage by 50-70%. Also using micro-irrigation can help increase crop productivity by 30-100%
How can water supplies be managed to be more sustainable?
3
Recycling and ‘Greywater’
Virtual Water Trade
Groundwater Management
Sustainable management of water supplies:
Recycling and ‘Greywater’
2
Greywater recycling is the process of reusing water from washing machines, showers, and sinks, that may be dirty, but is clean enough to be used for irrigating plants in gardens.
Greywater may be cleaned for reuse as water in washing machines and toilets, but this is expensive, so most users are industrial who have more money and/or larger water demand.
Sustainable management of water supplies:
Virtual water trade
4
Virtual water trade refers to the process of trading items that have a water footprint.
Western countries import significant amounts of cotton. Due to the high water footprint of cotton, this places stress on water resources in the LIC countries it grows in.
In countries where water scarcity exists, water intensive products are imported to preserve domestic supplies.
LIC countries suffering from water shortages such as India, are ironically exporting the greatest amount of water intensive products
Sustainable management of water supplies:
Groundwater Management
5
The amount extracted can be monitored to ensure it is not extracted faster than it is naturally replaced.
Laws can be passed to prevent over-extraction
Farmers can be encouraged to apply less agricultural fertiliser and pesticides to farmland
Companies that leak or dump toxic waste can be fined
Aquifers can be artificially recharged
Strategies to reduce energy consumption
4
Home design
Industrial and commercial energy saving
International agreements
Sustainable transport strategies
Strategies to reduce energy consumption:
Home design
6
Using recycled building materials
Fitting larger windows (improved daylighting)
Improve thermal efficiency of walls, windows, and roof
Using low carbon tech - solar panels, biomass boilers, wind turbines
Energy-efficient appliances
Draught proofing
Strategies to reduce energy consumption:
Industrial and commercial energy saving
The Carbon Trust:
4
Non-profit organisation whose main aim is to help the business community move towards a low carbon economy
Helps large companies create climate change strategies
Gives smaller companies free energy audits and no-interest loans for energy-efficient equipment
Encourages consumers to install heat recovery systems that collect and reuse heat
Strategies to reduce energy consumption:
Industrial and commercial energy saving
Combined heat and power (CHP) systems
4
A highly efficient process that captures and utilises the heat that is a by-product of the electricity generation process.
By generating heat and power simultaneously, CHP can reduce carbon emissions by up to 30%
CHP systems are highly efficient, making use of the heat that would otherwise be wasted when generating electrical or mechanical power.
This allows heat requirements to be met that would otherwise require additional fuel to be burnt.
Strategies to reduce energy consumption:
International agreements
4
Government incentives e.g. subsidising the installation of solar panels
Use of media and other campaigns to raise awareness - may be government-led or run by NGOs
Pricing strategies - reducing prices of renewables and increasing those of fossil fuels
Agreements like the Paris Agreement which reduce the usage of fossil fuels
Strategies to reduce energy consumption:
Sustainable transport strategies
Categories
3
Schemes and campaigns to discourage car travel or reduce congestion
Methods and designs
Technology
Strategies to reduce energy consumption:
Sustainable transport strategies
Schemes and campaigns to discourage car travel or reduce congestion:
8
Planning homes, services, and workplaces in close proximity to reduce travel
Campaigns to encourage taking public transport/walking/cycling
Campaigns and incentives to encourage car sharing
Park and ride schemes
Toll roads
Congestion charge
Government policy/legislation - road tax based on emissions
Encouraging the use of cleaner fuels
Strategies to reduce energy consumption:
Sustainable transport strategies
Methods and designs:
Using more renewable fuels e.g. bioethanol
Aerodynamic designs reduces fuel consumption
Strategies to reduce energy consumption:
Sustainable transport strategies
Technology:
3
Engine design: more efficient fuel usage with lower emissions
Ignition control: reduces wastage
Hybrid cars: using electric power = more sustainable
