1C - Hazards - Case Studies Flashcards
Mount Ontake, Japan eruption:
When?
27th September 2014
Mount Ontake, Japan eruption:
Was there warning?
No
Until 1979 it was believed to be dormant.
After a few minor eruptions, it was monitored.
Despite it being monitored, the minor earthquakes which usually signal an impending eruption were not detected.
Mount Ontake, Japan eruption:
Vulcanicity
Eruption was phreatic - water seeped into the volcano and became super heated by the magma
In a phreatic eruption, magma doesn’t actually erupt from the volcano, instead hot ash, rocks and steam do.
The eruption wasn’t particularly explosive - had a Volcano Explosivity Index (VEI) of 3 - but the proximity of the hot ash to the hikers made it dangerous
Mount Ontake, Japan eruption:
Japan’s volcanic activity
Japan is one of the most volcanically active places in the world with 10% of the world’s active volcanoes being on Japanese islands.
This is due to it being the meeting point of 4 major plates - the Pacific, Philippine, Eurasian, and North American.
Mount Ontake, Japan eruption:
Effects
Produced huge pyroclastic flow which trapped 250 people on its slopes
Over 50 deaths (most hikers)
At least 40 others injured - some cuts, bruises, and broken bones, some lung damage
The huge ash cloud billowed down the mountain for more than 3km, engulfing hikers in its path.
Mount Ontake, Japan eruption:
Response
Around 1000 Japanese rescue workers set out to search the peak after the eruption.
Recovery efforts were hampered in the early stages of the rescue due to the volcanic conditions.
The rescue effort was halted as the volcano continued to eject toxic gases, rocks, and ash.
Residents were warned of falling stones.
On 29th September, rescuers had to abandon their mission due to the levels of poisonous hydrogen sulphide becoming too dangerous.
Typhoon Phanfone also hit the region on 5th-6th October which meant that efforts were interrupted.
A month after the eruption, death toll stood at 57 with 6 others still missing.
The search for the missing was continued on 29th July 2015 - 10 months after the eruption due to continued volcanic activity.
Mount Ontake, Japan eruption:
Why was there no warning?
This was an eruption of hot ash and super-heated steam meaning that it was very hard to predict.
There were also no visible signs that an eruption was about to occur.
Hurricane Harvey case study:
When
17th August 2017 - 2nd September 2017
Hurricane Harvey case study:
Details of the hurricane
4
First made landfall over San Jose Island and then near Rockport, in south-central Texas as a Category 4 hurricane, threatening millions of residents with 130-mph winds, heavy rains, and a massive storm surge that swamped coastal areas.
It stalled around southern Texas for days as a weakening hurricane, producing catastrophic flash and river flooding.
The storm dumped more than 27 trillion gallons of rain over Texas - wettest Atlantic hurricane ever measured
1/3 of Houston was completely flooded and the weight of the water also sank the city temporarily by two centimetres
Hurricane Harvey case study:
Primary impacts
4
An estimated 300,000 structures and 500,000 vehicles were damaged or destroyed in Texas alone.
Nearly every structure in Port Aransas was damaged, some severely, while significant damage from storm surge also occurred
In Rockport, entire blocks were destroyed by the hurricane’s violent eyewall winds
About 20 percent of Rockport’s population was displaced
Hurricane Harvey case study:
Socio-economic (secondary) Impacts
4
Damage cost:
Causing about $125 billion in damage
Populated area:
Struck densely populated areas - impedes economic activity to a larger degree as more are displaced
Gulf Coast:
Affected the Gulf Coast - U.S. petroleum refining capacity - played a role in increasing energy prices by 2.8% in August 2017
Mental Health:
Rise in levels of depression and anxiety
Hurricane Harvey case study:
Who was most severely affected and why?
7
No. affected = 13 million
Unemployment:
The no. filing for unemployment benefits jumped to a more than two-year high
Schools:
Several dozen schools remained closed more than a month into the school year
Harris County/insurance:
Since many residents lived outside the flood plain, most people affected were uninsured - 15% of homes in Harris County had flood insurance.
Low-income residents:
Wealthier homeowners are more likely to have flood insurance and be able to pay for clean-up sooner.
Low-income residents face substandard infrastructure and higher exposure to pollution and toxic waste
More affluent people have a greater capacity to evacuate.
Renters + public housing tenants:
Renters and public housing tenants also struggled with finding places to go.
Elderly:
The elderly population was extremely vulnerable as they have much less mobility, complicated medical conditions, and an unstable income.
Hurricane Harvey case study:
Immediate responses
6
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) had pre-positioned supplies and personnel in the state
Within 30 days, more than $1.5 billion in federal funds was paid to Texans impacted by the disaster
The Coast Guard deployed personnel, aircrafts, boats and cutters, rescuing 11,022 people
FEMA assigned 28 Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) teams from across the nation to deploy to Texas to assist state and local agencies with the lifesaving mission.
FEMA supplied 3 million meals, 3 million litres of water to the state to distribute
The American Red Cross provided $45 million
Hurricane Harvey case study:
Longer-term recovery
4
To date, the Center for Disaster Philanthropy awarded grants totalling more than $6 million to support long-term recovery
NGOs helped restore health services for vulnerable survivors; expand health services, especially for stress and trauma; and prepare health facilities for future disasters.
The CDP Hurricane Harvey Recovery Fund raised more than $14 million for medium- to long-term recovery in Texas
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development announced Texas would receive just over $5 billion for long-term rebuilding efforts.
Hurricane Harvey case study:
Evaluation of responses - Good
4
Harvey was predicted and allowed for preparation and evacuation, therefore keeping the death toll relatively low
The government was also incredibly fast at paying Texans that were impacted (30 days, more than $1.5 billion in federal funds was paid to Texans impacted)
Rescue missions began very quickly
Overall, the huge amount of money raised massively helped struggling communities and the federal funds were also distributed very quickly
Hurricane Harvey case study:
Evaluation of responses - Bad
4
Of the nearly $1 billion raised for regional recovery, nearly 30% had yet to be distributed by Aug 2018
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development announced Texas would receive just over $5 billion for long-term rebuilding efforts, but this hadn’t arrived by November
Many people in Texas didn’t have flood insurance, so they received little to no compensation.
Trump requested $44 bn in aid for recovery for all the hurricanes that had hit (it was estimated that $121bn was needed for full recovery). The Governor of Texas Greg Abbott said this was “inadequate” and the White House responded saying, “Up until this point, Texas has not put any state dollars into this process” - this was disputed by Abbott’s office who claimed they had spent or incurred over $1bn
Cyclone Idai case study:
When + Where
March 2019
Made landfall in Mozambique
Brought strong winds and severe flooding in Madagascar, Mozambique, Malawi and Zimbabwe
Cyclone Idai case study:
Details of cyclone
3
Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale
maximum sustained winds of 121mph
Rainfall in the city exceeded 200mm, while the heaviest rainfall was more than 600mm near Chimoio
Cyclone Idai case study:
Primary impacts
3
2.5m storm surge that ‘totally destroyed’ around 90% of Beira City.
> 700,000 ha of agricultural land was damaged, compounding food shortages in a country that is already at high risk of famine.
Estimated 1,300 people died from primary impacts
Cyclone Idai case study:
Secondary socio-economic impacts
7
Due to infrastructure damage, sanitation severely worsened - Cholera cases topped 4000 in Mozambique roughly 3 weeks after the cyclone first hit
40 health centres in Mozambique were damaged or destroyed
Mozambique also recorded >3000 cases of diarrhoea within 3 weeks of the cyclone
Over 1 million people were left without electricity - communication and rescue efforts impeded
Total damage to buildings and infrastructure were estimated to be US$2bn
Beira City, which was largely destroyed, is the second most important port for international trade in Mozambique, meaning the country’s ability to earn foreign currency was diminished.
2 HEP plants were destroyed in Malawi - Malawi lost 84% of its HEP
Cyclone Idai case study:
Who was most severely affected?
Poorer people and women were hit harder as they are more likely to be involved in unpaid work
Cyclone Idai case study:
Immediate responses
4
Evacuation:
Some people were evacuated by boat before the cyclone struck, however many people in rural areas didn’t respond to the warnings or were not aware of them.
Foreign military:
The South African air force and the Indian army drove the initial rescue effort
Aid:
The government received support from international donors for a disaster fund of $18.3m, the main source of funding was specifically for search and rescue within the first 72 hours
Reception centres:
More than 130,000 newly homeless people were taken into reception centres
Cyclone Idai case study:
Long term responses
3
Two weeks after the storm the government of Mozambique announced a new phase in the recovery operation was beginning to help those affected and rebuild the education, health, energy, transport, industry and trade sectors
The UN appealed for donations of $282m to fund emergency assistance for the 3 months following the cyclone
A WASH cluster was established and was led by UNICEF to develop a strategy to ensure the provision of safe water, sanitation and hygiene facilities for the people in the shelters
Cyclone Idai case study:
Evaluation of responses - good
2
Initial reporting claimed that around 400 people had died - this eventually rose by 900 which is not that much given many people would have already died but not been found.
Perhaps shows that the rescue efforts were quite good as an estimated 3 million people were affected.
Cyclone Idai case study:
Evaluation of responses - bad
3
Sexual exploitation:
There were some allegations of sexual exploitation by rescue workers in Mozambique
Damaged/temp housing:
145,000 people still living in damaged or temporary buildings after 1 year (UN).
Foreign debt:
Mozambique’s foreign debt has worsened again, likely due to economic disruption of cyclone (IMF).
Cyclone Idai case study:
Long term impacts
4
Cholera cases caused by the flooding still months after the Cyclone were spreading
Mosquito populations exploded after the Cyclone as receding waters provide more breeding spaces for insects and so Malaria is also spreading
Increased mental health problems
Women and girls who provide unpaid care responsibilities were affected by the storm, as now they face longer distances to water points and sanitation facilities which increases the risk of gender-based violence
Eyjafjallajökull eruption:
When
March - April 2010
Eyjafjallajökull eruption:
The eruption itself - details
4
Problems started to arise in April when the eruptions spread to the centre of the volcano, a 3km wide crater surrounded by ice
The ash plume reached 11,000m in the air
VEI of 4
Lack of wind meant that the ash cloud wasn’t dispersed quickly.
Eyjafjallajökull eruption:
Prediction
3
Eruption followed several months of increased seismic activity in Iceland.
The IMO’s weather radar on the southwest tip of the country showed the height of the ash plume, which is important for calculating the distribution of the ash.
There was a 24/7 watch at the IMO, where a meteorologist is present, and a seismologist and hydrologist are on call
Eyjafjallajökull eruption:
Preparation and planning
5
The police call landlines and send text messages not only to all residents, but to all summer houses and recreation centres.
Evacuees hang a sign on their front door indicating that they have left.
Rescue workers sweep the area to be sure it’s all clear and there will be evacuation centres just outside the area
The EU has other transport mechanisms such as extensive road and motorway networks, rail networks and boat networks
Travellers stuck by the ash cloud were entitled to legal compensation from their airlines and their airlines were also legally responsible for the well-being of stranded passengers.
Eyjafjallajökull eruption:
Responses
6
The responses were entirely DOMESTIC.
The countries affected by this hazard responded by themselves or collectively and had the capacity to do so.
The area around the volcano was evacuated
European Red Cross Societies mobilised volunteers, staff and other resources to help people affected directly or indirectly by the eruption
The European Red Cross provided food for the farming population living in the vicinity of the glacier
Set off a major flood in Iceland, when erupted lava partly melted a glacier prompting authorities to order 700 people to evacuate.
Eyjafjallajökull eruption:
Economic impacts
4
Airlines lost a combined £130 million per day in lost revenues
Europe’s biggest tourism businesses lost between £5 million and £6 million per day.
Kenya’s economy lost £2.8 billion because of flights to Europe being cancelled - couldn’t export
As a result of staff being stranded abroad, meetings being cancelled and delays to air mail, many businesses worldwide lost money.
Eyjafjallajökull eruption:
Social impacts
4
The people living in the rural areas ‘downwind’ of the volcano had to wear goggles and facemasks as the ash was so thick.
500 local cattle farmers and their families had to be evacuated from the area around the volcano.
The ash contaminated local water supplies.
People were stranded all across the world
Eyjafjallajökull eruption:
Environmental impacts
Grounding of European flights prevented the emission of 2.8 million tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
Mount Merapi eruption:
When
October – November 2010
Mount Merapi eruption:
Monitoring
3
Most active volcano in Indonesia
Tiltmeters showed that the volcanic dome had begun to bulge.
In September there was increased earthquake activity and white plumes of smoke were seen rising above the volcano’s crater.
Mount Merapi eruption:
Short-term impacts - primary
5
Volcanic bombs and heat clouds, with temperatures up to 800°C, spread over a distance of 10 km.
Volcanic ash fell up to 30 km away and travelled 6 km into the sky.
Sulphur dioxide was blown across Indonesia, the Indian Ocean and as far south as Australia.
Villages, such as Bronggang, 15 km from the volcano, were buried under 30 cm of ash.
Pyroclastic flows travelled 3 km down the heavily populated mountain side
Mount Merapi eruption:
Short-term impacts - secondary
4
Ash clouds caused disruption to aviation
Roads were blocked as residents tried to flee the hazard zone
350,000 people made homeless
Overcrowded evacuation centres – poor sanitation, no privacy, serious risk of disease
Mount Merapi eruption:
Long-term impacts
3
Ash will eventually lead to more fertile soils
Data from eruption has enabled hazard mapping to be updated – used to set up exclusion zones
People (particularly farmers) lost their homes and livelihoods
Mount Merapi eruption:
Immediate responses
4
An exclusion zone of 20km was established around the volcano
Indonesian Disaster Management Agency mobilised volunteers, the military, and police to circulate information, rescue survivors, control traffic etc.
International aid was offered from governments and NGOs such as the Red Cross
210 evacuation centres set up
Mount Merapi eruption:
Long-term responses
3
The gov. made money available to farmers to help replace their livestock
An exclusion zone of 2.5km was set up
Improved prediction measures and education in evacuation procedures have been introduced
Japan Earthquake:
When
2011
Japan Earthquake:
Details
5
9.0 magnitude
The fourth most powerful earthquake ever detected worldwide.
Epicentre = 130 km east of the city of Sendai
Focus = 15.5 miles below the floor of the Pacific Ocean
Aftershocks continued, many exceeding magnitude 7.0.
Japan Earthquake:
Primary impacts
2
Life loss from the earthquake itself was relatively small and few buildings collapsed.
Roads and rail lines were damaged
Japan Earthquake:
Secondary short-term impacts
9
Tsunami waves were caused by the sudden horizontal and vertical thrusting of the Pacific Plate, displacing the water above it.
A wave measuring up to 40m high inundated the coast and flooded parts of Sendai (+airport)
It was so strong that it generated waves 11 to 12 ft high along the coasts of Kauai and Hawaii
19,300 people died
A wave flooded Fukushima’s plant generators and electrical wiring. People lost energy immediately.
330,000 buildings destroyed
300 hospitals damaged
Around 4.4 million households in North-East Japan were left without electricity.
Some areas experienced land subsidence – dropped the beachfronts by 50 cm.
Japan Earthquake:
Secondary long-term impacts
3
The economic cost was US$235 billion - the most expensive natural disaster in world history
The damage caused by the earthquake resulted in the meltdown of seven reactors. Radiation levels at one point were over eight times normal levels.
More than 1 million households had no water
Japan Earthquake:
Prediction, Prep, Planning
5
Buildings:
Japan has the technology to invest in ‘life safe’ structures.
Seismic isolators, counterbalances and cross bearings help to keep structures from pancaking when the p and s waves strike.
Around 87% of buildings in Tokyo are able to withstand earthquakes.
Warning system:
Every smartphone in Japan is installed with an earthquake and tsunami emergency alert system - the warning systems detects the s waves from earthquakes
Trains:
The trains are equipped with earthquake sensors that are triggered to freeze every moving train in the country if necessary.
When the quake hit, there were 27 moving bullet trains in action. Every single train was triggered by smaller pre-quakes and stopped before the major quake hit, resulting in zero deaths or even injuries.
Education:
From a young age, schoolchildren are educated on the best way to seek protection and stay safe if an earthquake hits their area.
Sea Wall:
Japan spent billions of dollars building anti-tsunami defenses at heights of 12 m. The tsunami washed over them, rendering them totally ineffective.
HOWEVER, in Fudai - the late mayor built a 17m tall sea wall in the 1970s after seeing the devastation of the 1933 Tsunami that hit the area - this wall saved the small town and it was left untouched compared with neighbouring towns which were destroyed.
Japan Earthquake:
Immediate responses
7
100,000 members of the Japanese Self-Defense Force were rapidly mobilized to deal with the crisis
Japanese government requested that U.S. military personnel stationed in the country be available to help in relief efforts
Hampered initially by the difficulty in getting personnel and supplies to the devastation zone
The majority of the 270,000 persons within the nuclear evacuation zone were evacuated
Within a week:
Roads leading to coastal towns were cleared
All 14 ports were restored to receive relief goods.
Electric service was restored to 90% of Japan’s residents.
Japan Earthquake:
Long-term responses
6
Within a month:
Water service was restored to 90% of residents.
Train service was restored to the area, except for the destroyed coastal line
In 2012:
The government established a cabinet-level Reconstruction Agency to coordinate rebuilding efforts in the Tōhoku area.
The agency was scheduled to be in operation for 10 years.
In early 2015 the agency reported that nearly all the disaster debris had been removed.
By 2018:
344,000 people were still displaced.
About 92% of public housing units were completed.
Evacuation orders continue to be lifted as communities in Fukushima were decontaminated and radiation levels normalised.
Haiti Earthquake:
When
2010
Haiti Earthquake:
Details
3
7.0 magnitude
Epicentre = 25km away from Port au Prince
Focus = 8.1 miles below the surface
Haiti Earthquake:
Primary Impacts
4
An estimated 250,000 people died
At least 300,000 people were injured
Nearly 4,000 schools were damaged or destroyed.
3 million people affected
Haiti Earthquake:
Secondary impacts
6
Homeless:
Over 1 million left homeless - Haiti lacked any building codes - the buildings pancaked
Infrastructure:
The vital infrastructure necessary to respond to the disaster was damaged or destroyed - hospitals in the capital; air, sea, and land transport facilities; and communication systems.
Looting:
Looting became prevalent and was exacerbated in the capital by the escape of several thousand prisoners from the damaged penitentiary.
Morgues:
Survivors were forced to wait days for treatment and, with morgues quickly reaching capacity, corpses were stacked in the streets
Orphans:
The orphans were left vulnerable to abuse and human trafficking.
Cholera:
In October 2010, cases of cholera began to surface around the Artibonite River. as it had been contaminated by fecal matter
Haiti Earthquake:
Immediate response
3
Efforts by citizens and international aid organizations to provide medical assistance, food, and water to survivors were hampered by the failure of the electric power system, loss of communication lines, and roads blocked with debris.
A week after the event, little aid had reached beyond Port-au-Prince.
The infrastructure of the country’s computer network was largely unaffected so electronic media emerged as a useful mode for connecting those separated by the quake and for coordinating relief efforts.
Haiti Earthquake:
Long-term response
3
By spring and summer, reconstruction efforts had made little progress
Two years later:
Only half of the rubble littering Port-au-Prince had been cleared.
More than half a million people remained in tents
