265 Midterm Flashcards
what does sport and exercise psychology focus on?
understanding processes and techniques that enables people and groups to thrive and the effect of sport and exercise on people and group
what do sport and exercise psychology specialist do?
three roles: teaching, consulting and research
consulting and interventions
emotional, cognitive, behavioral
consulting and interventions (emotional)
focuses on changing negative emotions to more positive ones such as joy, happiness, enjoyment and satisfaction
consulting and interventions (Cognitive)
focuses on how someone’s thoughts influence emotional experience, motivation, health, and performance
consulting and interventions (Behavioural)
focuses on how behaviors affect outcomes such as well being and performance
1895-1920 (Norman triplett)
found that working with others performance increases (social facilitation)
1921-1938 (Coleman Griffith)
idea that sport is physical but there is psychological parts of sport that needs more attention
- first lab in sport psychology
1938-1965 (Franklin henry, Ferruccio Antonelli)
-start of the academic discipline of exercise and sport science
-international development of sport psychology
-establishment of ISSP
1966-1977 (Bruce Ogilvie and Thomas tutko) (Bryan Cratty)
-beginning of applied sport psychology
-NASPSPA
-Canadian society for psychomotor learning and sport psychology
(lots of organizations developments)
1978-present
establishment of JSEP,TSP,JASP
creation of AAASP
ontology
-it is an objective or subjective thing
deals with nature of reality (what is real)
what is within ontology
realism: the external world exists independently of human perception
relativism: the external world exists as mental constructs different for everyone
epistemology
the study of knowledge
- asking questions how do we know things? etc…
-exploring how we learn and understand things
objective
used to describe something that is based on facts, reality’s or external criteria rather than influenced by personal feelings, interpretation or biases
constructionist
emphasizes the active role of individual in constricting knowledge through their experiences and interaction with the environment. it recognizes the influence of subjective interpretations
methodology
ways to find knowledge
- approaches of procedures and techniques used to conduct research
what is research paradigm
framework of a scientific discipline uses to reason
-addressing ontological, epistemological and methodological
quantitative (positivist)
-deductive process
-cause and effect
-static design, categories isolated before study
-context free
-generalizations leading to prediction, explanation, and understanding
-accurate and reliable (validity, reliability)
-numerical
Qualitative (interpretivist)
-inductive process
-mutual simultaneous shaping of factors
emerging designs-categories identified during research process
-context bound
-patterns, theories developed for understanding
-accurate and reliable through verification
evidence based practice
-uses best available research to inform clinical decision making and service delivery
- information such as client characteristics, cultural backgrounds and treatment preferences need to be considered
personality
a systematic variation in the way people think, feel, and behave
- emphasis on individual differences
- everyone is different
trait
a relatively stable characteristic or quality that may represent a portion of one’s personality; a quality used to explain an individuals behaviour across time and situations
- more constant, characterisitcs that goes across situations
states
momentary feelings and thoughts that change depending on the situation and time
- something that happens in the moment
big five model
- openness to experience
- conscientiousness (how much people respect others when deciding stuff)
- agreeableness (how compatible are you with others)
- extraversion
- neuroticism
personalitys in sport
- risk taking, sensation seeking, alexithymia
- competitiveness
- passion
- mental toughness
- perfectionism
risk taking, sensation seeking, alexithymia
risk taking: narrowing physical and psychological safety margins
sensation seeking: ppl look for complex and intense sensations and experiences and the willingness to take multiple risks to obtain experiences
Alexithymia: the inability to identity’s one emotions and to describe these feelings (these ppl are more likely to plan high risks sports)
competitiveness
desire to engage in and strive for success in sport achievement situations
harmonious passion
engaging in an activity as part of ones personal identify and for the pleasure of the activity
obsessive passion
more rigid and uncontrolled urge to engage in activities because of external control or feelings of guilt
- similar to addiction
types of passion
-harmonious
-obsessive
mental toughness
positive characteristics that allow the person to cope with challenging situations to attain important achievement
psychological characteristics: perceived control, competitiveness, concentration, confidence, commitment, focus, resilience
perfectionism
perfectionistic striving (PS)- establishing very high personal performance standards and self-oriented achievement striving
perfectionistic concerns (PC)- reflects aspects of a negative social evolution
including excessive self-criticism, comes over mistakes, and doubts about actions
how do we use personality
selecting athletes
health and well-being
how can you measure personality
- self report questionnaires (big five personality inventory, Myers Briggs type indicator)
- behavioral assessments: observing and evaluation an individual’s actual behaviors in various situations
- projective tests: Roschach inkblot test
- interviews
- biological measures: brain imaging techniques and physiological measures
- online and digital data
how does personality develop
- humanistic psychology
- cognitive behavioral approach
- biological/evolutionary psychology
- interactionist approach
humanistic psychology
-focuses on personal responsibility, human growth, personal striving, and individual dignity
-self actualization
-Maslows hierarchy of needs: Once basic needs are met, individuals strive to meet higher needs
cognitive-behavioral approach
- individuals thoughts, perceptions and interpretations of experiences contribute to personality
-behaviour is learned through experience, influenced by rewards and punishment
biological/evolutionary psychology
-personality can be moderately heritable
-individual differences in extraversion reflect differences in cortical arousal
-neuroticism is manifestation of individual differences in limbic activity
(not used much)
interactionist approach
-personal/situational factors impact behaviour predictively
- situational interplay between person and environment determines athletes behavious
-individuals bring specific experiences and dispositions to physical activity situation
anxiety
characterized by feelings of apprehension and tension and associated with activation (arousal) of the organism
-negative affects
arousal
describes a state of the organism and varies from deep sleep to intense excitement
- activate, awaken, alert, or excite
trait anxiety
person’s general predisposition to perceive a situation as threatening or non-threatening (personality characteristic)
state anxiety
is a response to a specific situation that is perceived as threatening or dangerous. varies in intensity and fluctuate overtime
types of state anxiety
cognitive
somatic
cognitive anxiety
mental component of anxiety, referring to worries and concerns and a reduced ability to focus
somatic anxiety
physical component of anxiety, referring to perceptions of body states, such as clammy hands, a racing heart, or butterflies in the stomach
social anxiety
specific subtype of anxiety that occurs when people believe they will receive a negative evaluation from others
social physique anxiety
a specific subtype of social anxiety that occurs when people are worried about receiving a negative evaluation about their bodies from others
competitive anxiety
a specific subtype of soical anxiety that occurs in competitive sport situations and is related to athletes worries that they may be evaluated negatively by others, with respects to their bodies, performance, or skills
drive theory
the higher level of arousal the better the individual will perform (optimal level), if
-narrowing of attention
-shift to dominant style
-attend to inappropriate cues
choking
an acute, significant decrement in performance that occurs in situations of high pressure or anxiety, when typical levels of performance are expected
motivation
the internal processes, such as needs, thoughts, and emotions, that give your behaviour energy and direction
approaches to understanding motivation
-behavioural approaches
-cognitive approaches
-cognitive-behvioural approaches
behavioural approached (motivation)
understanding motivated behaviour that focuses on conditioning or learning from the environment
- operant conditioning (reinforcement and punishment)
-vicarious conditioning (observing others)
-operant strategies(self-monitoring; rewarding yourself)
cognitive approaches (motivation)
to understanding motivated behaviour that emphasizes the role of thoughts and cognitive habits
- looks at people interpretation of external environment
-automatic thoughts processes, cognitive errors, beliefs
cognitive-behavioral (motivation)
understanding motivated behaviour that outline the reciprocal influence between cognitions and behaviour
central tenets:
-cognitions influence emotions and behaviours
-behaviour affects thought patterns and emotions
model of motivation
-transtheoretical model
-theory of planned behaviour
-social cognitive theory
-self-determination theory
-achievement goal theory
-dual process models
transtheoretical model
-frame work to understand how individuals initiate and adopt regular physical activity
-five stages: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance
factor influencing stage progession in transtheoretical model
- self-efficacy: beliefs that ones capabilities to execute the course of action required to produce specific outcomes
- Decisional balance: values associated with advantages and disadvantages of behavioral change
- processes of change: strategies use to progress through the stages of change
precontemplation
not ready
-not aware, no intention to change
contemplation
getting ready
- aware problem exists, thinking about changing
preparation
ready
-intention to change
action
6 months
- making changes in behaviour
maintenance
6 months-5 years
- made changes, prevent relapase
termination
lifetime
-100% self-efficacy, no feeling to relapse
theory of planned behaviour
highlights personal/social factors as influencing intention of behaviour
-attitude reflects positive or negative
-subjective norms shows social pressure
-behaviour can be different via personal/environmental barriers
applications of the theory of planned behaviour
-should focus on enhancing the individuals intention to exercise
-increase attitude towards physical activity by increasing info about exercise
-target subjective norms by eliciting the support of others
the intention-behaviour gap
people do not always do what they intend to do
-influenced by; stability, habit, affective judgement, identity
social cognitive theory
personal, behavioral, and environmental factors influence behaviour
-reciprocal determinism (relationship between behaviour and personal factors and environment that all influence one another)
7 constructs within social cognitive theory
1.observational learning
2.goals
3.outcome expectations
4.outcome expectancies
5.self-regulation
6.behavioural capacity
7.self-efficacy
mastery experience (self-efficacy)
past performance success and failure for similar behaviours influence self-efficacy
vicarious experiences (self-efficacy)
modelled behaviours associated with development and change in self-efficacy
- experiencing something indirectly
social persuasion (self-efficacy)
verbal and non-verbal feedback from significant, knowledgeable others
physiological and affective states (self efficacy)
physical and emotional cues associated with performance and behaviour
application of social cognitive theory
an app for exercise that adopts the principle of social cognitive theory
- the app causes ppl to be more engaged in physical activity
self-determination theory
-theory of human motivation and development
-individuals are motivated to do things when they feel like they have a say in what they’re doing, when they feel competent at it, and when they can connect with others through it
competence
feeling effective at ones activities
autonomy
having a choice, being able to be yourself
relatedness
feeling connected to other, sense of belonging
achievement goal theory
-depends on developmental and situational factors
task goal orientation
ego goal orientation
task goal orientation (achievement goal theory)
focuses on past performance as origin of perception of competence
-opportunities for personal growth and mastery
-emphasizing mastery, effort evokes task orientation
ego goal orientation (achievement goal theory)
performance evaluations based on comparisons with other as the determinant of competence
-success comes from doing better than others
-emphasizing competition, winning, comparison evokes ego orientation
dual-process models
-conscious processes
-non-conscious processes
when they’re working together people navigate effectively through the environment
conscious processes
deliberate, slow, guided by beliefs, and values, require cognitive processing, and are of limited capacity
non-conscious processes
operate quickly, without awareness, are based on feelings, and require minimal cognitive resources
application of dual-process models
-once conscious process are repeatedly linked with behaviour, non conscious processes start
stress
typically caused by an external trigger
-may experience physical and mental symptoms
anxiety
persistent, excessive worries that don’t go away even in the absence of a stressor
- usually internal trigger
-similar symptoms to stress
-anticipation of future events or situations that’s are thoughts of threatening
emotions
-subjective
-complex psychological state
-triggered by internal or external stimuli
stressors
external events, forces, and situations that are stressful
chronic stress
stressors that occur over a long period of time (many things/issues)
acute stress
stressors that occur within a short period of time, and within a sudden onset
expected stressors
can plan for
unexpected stressors
can not plan for
competitive stressors
are experienced prior to, during or immediately following competition
non-competitive stressors
related to sport, but not directly part of an actual competitive performance
-can be classified as organizational stressors
primary appraisal
an evaluation of what is at stake for person in a situation
-is this situation a threat to my well-being?
-does it rep a challenge or opp for growth?
secondary appraisal
-an evaluation of what can be done in the situation
-people use their resources and coping skills to handle stressor
what do appraisal processes result in
psychological experiences
harm/loss: evaluation of a situation if damage has already been done
threat: individual anticipates harm might occur or is likely to occur
challenge: obstacles are in the way, they can eb overcame
coping
-cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external/internal demands
-efforts to manage stress
coping is not
management skills
management skills
-behaviours that are routine and help the individual avoid problems and help prevent stress from happening in the first place
coping strategies
-problem focused coping
-emotion-focused coping
-avoidance coping
-task-oriented
-distraction oriented
-disengagement oriented
problem-focused coping
coping efforts that help people change the actual situation
emotion-focused coping
do not directly address the stressors but focus on changing the way a situation is attended or interpreted and dealing with the emotions
avoidance coping
athletes attempt to remove themselves from the stressful situation
task-oriented coping
aimed at dealing directly with the source of stress and its resulting thoughts and emotions
disengagement-oriented coping
disengage from the process of trying to make progress on a personal goal
distraction-oriented coping
focus on internal and external stimuli that are unrelated to the stressful situation
emotion regulation strategies
-situation selection
-situation modification
-attentional deployment
-cognitive change
-response modulation
the effectiveness of coping strategies
-perceived coping effectiveness
-achievement outcomes
-physical outcomes
-emotional outcomes
stress reduction strategies
-if-then coping plan
-emotion regulation
-expressive writing
-self-compassion
moral behaviour
the carrying out of an action that is deemed right or wrong
moral development
the process in which an individual develops the capacity to reason morally
structural development perspective
Kohlberg’s 3 development levels
-pre-conventional morality (fear of punishment, hope of rewards)
-conventional morality (conform for approval)
-post-conventional morality (principled actions)
social learning perspective
-learned through reinforcement and modelling
participation in sport teaches ethical sporting behaviours
4 factors influencing moral behaviour
- sport environment: influenced by coach
- motivational climate: mastery vs. performance
- team norms: standards that influence behaviour
- goal orientation: task vs. ego orientations
aggression
any overt verbal or physical act that is intended to injure another living organism either psychologically or physically
violent behaviour
an extreme act of physical aggression
assertive behaviour
forceful, vigorous, and legitimate actions with no intent to injure an opponent (expressing yourself)
4 points about aggressive behaviour
- it is a behaviour, not emotion/feeling/personality trait
- verbal or physical
- intended to cause physical or psychological harm
- directed toward another living organism
instrumental aggression
aggressive acts serving as a mean to a particular goal like winning, money. in which the intent to injure the opponent is involved
- impersonal
- designed to limit the effectiveness of the opponent
hostile aggression
aggressive acts undertaken for the intentional purpose of trying to harm or injure the victim
-personal
bullying
imbalance of power between peers where the one who is more powerful repeatedly attacks the less powerful one with the intention to harm
hazing
any potentially humiliating, degrading, abusive, or dangerous activity expected of an individual to belong to a group, regardless of willingness to participate
psychodynamics theory
humans are born with behavioral tendencies causing them to act in certain ways
-freud believed aggression behaviour is innate (natural)
-purging aggression is known as catharsis
-psychodynamic theory has little support
frustration-aggression theory
aggression is a natural response to frustration
- revised theory: aggression can have causes other than frustration and frustration can lead to behaviours other than aggression
2 mechanisms why aggression is physiological in nature
- brain pathology: aggressive behaviour is often characteristic of people with brain tumors
- blood chemistry: aggression has been linked to the hormone testosterone
social learning theory (aggression)
-a person is neither driven by inner forces nor controlled solely by environmental influences
-people are aggressive because they have learned that aggression pays
(use of aggression can lead to success)
2 forms of social interaction influence aggressive behaviours
- modelling: observing aggressive model and retaining tendencies
- learning: acquiring new responses due to reinforcement
moral disengagement theory
suggests that individuals tend to cognitively separate the moral component from an otherwise unprincipled act in order to rationalize engaging in it
- individuals refrain from behaviours that violate their moral standards
3 factors influencing aggression in sport
- personal factors
- situational factor
- group factors
personal factors
-sex/gender
-age
-physical size
-retaliation motives
-annoyances
-self-presentation
-passion/athletic identity
situational factors
-frequecnety of competition
-home advantage
-point differentials
-coaching behaviours
group factors
-individual’s role
-team norms
-collective efficacy for aggression (team using aggression as a tactic)
ways to reducing aggression in sport
-Punishment and encouragement
-educational interventions
-behavioral modification practices
-changes to the sporting environment
-aggressive behaviour in the media
PUNISHMENT AND ENCOURAGEMENT
- teaching that aggression doesn’t pay would elicit behavioral change
- punishment for aggression more meaningful than reinforcement
- emphasize fair play and encourage/reward good behaviours
- utilize task goal orientation NOT ego-goal orientation
- positive role models
educational interventions
-workshops and classes for stakeholders
-teach psychological skills to help cope with emotions (anger management techniques)
behavioral modification practices
-athletes participate in programs designed to reduce aggressive behaviour
-athletes work on self-awareness and develop strategies and coping skills
-athletes assume responsibility for actions
changes to the sport environment
-ban or regulate alcoholic drinks at events
-promote athletic events as family affairs
-create enjoyable experiences emphasizing fair play
-change competitive structure
aggressive behaviour in the media
media shows aggression by:
- sensationalizing and replaying acts of aggression repeatedly
- glorifying aggression in feature stories
-promoting previous aggression between competitors to encourage attendance
maslows hierachy of needs order
- physiological needs, safety needs, love and belong, esteem, self-actualization
