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module 2: foundations to biology > 2.6 cell division, diversity, organisation > Flashcards

2.6 cell division, diversity, organisation Flashcards

1
Q

name the phases of the cell cycle

A

interphase
mitosis
cytokinesis

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2
Q

name the phases and describe what happens in interphase

A

g0= resting phase, cells may die, differentiate
G1= first growth phase, cell increases in size, organelles duplicate, genes transcript, protein synthesis
S= synthesis, DNA replicates
G2= second growth phase, cell checks for errors

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3
Q

what happens at the checkpoints

A

cell cycle halted and checked
g1= DNA damage, cell size etc.
g2=prevents cell replicating if DNA error from replicating

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4
Q

why are there checkpoints in the cell cycle

A

prevent uncontrolled cell division
detect/repair DNA damage
ensure cell cycle cannot be reveresed
DNA is only duplicated once

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5
Q

why do cells undergo mitosis

A

asexual reproduction
tissue growth and repair

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6
Q

name the stages of mitosis

A

prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telephase

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7
Q

what happens in prophase

A

chromosomes condense and become visible
spindle fibres form by centriole splitting and moving to opposite poles
nuclear envelope breaks down

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8
Q

what happens in metaphase

A

pairs of chromatids line up in the middle
spindle fibres attach to centromeres

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9
Q

what happens in anaphase

A

centromere of each pair of chromatids split
spindle fibres pull apart (motor proteins)

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10
Q

what happens in telephase

A

new nuclear membrane forms
cell now contains two nuclei that are genetically identical

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11
Q

what happens in cytokinesis

A

cell splits in two
plasma membrane and cytoplasm spilt
2 daughter cells formed

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12
Q

what is the significance of meiosis

A

sexual reproduction
fertilisation
haploid cells/gametes

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13
Q

what are homologous chromosomes

A

Pair of chromosomes
One paternal and one maternal
containing the same genes (diff. alleles)

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14
Q

name the stages of meiosis

A

prophase 1
metaphase 1
anaphase 1
telephase 1
p2
m2
a2
t2

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15
Q

what happens at prophase 1

A

p1= chromatin condenses, chromosomes supercoil, nuclear envelope break down, spindle fibres form, chromosomes come together in homologous pairs, crossing over occurs

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16
Q

what happens at metaphase 1

A

bivalents attach along equator, spindle attaches to centromere, independant assortment occurs (random)

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17
Q

what happens at anaphase 1

A

pairs of h.c are pulled apart

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18
Q

what happens at telephase 1

A

spindle fibres break down
two new nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes

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19
Q

what happens during cytokinesis after stage 1 of meiosis

A

division of cytoplasm and plasma membrane
produces two haploid cells

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20
Q

what happens at prophase 2

A

the two new nuclear envelopes break down, chromosomes condense and spindle forms

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21
Q

what happens at metaphase 2

A

chromosomes line up at equator attached by centromere

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22
Q

what happens at anaphase 2

A

centromeres divide, chromatids pulled apart and randomly segregated

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23
Q

what happens at telophase 2

A

nuclear envelope form around each of 4 haploid nuclei

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24
Q

how does meiosis produces genetic variation

A

crossing over during prophase
independant assortment

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25
what is independant assortment
production of different combinations of alleles in daughter cells due to random allignment of homologous pairs along the equator of the spindle during metaphase 1
26
Define chiasmata
point that the pair of homologous chromosomes are joined together
27
what are stem cells
unspecialised cells that are pluripotent
28
what are the sources of stem cells
adult stem cells embryonic stem cells induced pluripotent stem cells umbilical cord blood
29
Pluripotent vs totipotent
Totipotent = any type of cell Pluripotent = any cell apart from placenta cell
30
uses of stem cells
treatment of Alzheimers, paralysis, parkinsons research into developmental biology repair of damaged tissue
31
what is a bivalent
pair of homologous chromosomes
32
What is differentiation
Process of cells becoming specialised
33
How are embryonic cells differentiated
Certain genes are switched on or off/ expressed more so proportions organelles differ, shape of cell, and contents of cell changes
34
What is an erythrocyte
Red blood cell
35
What is the function of a erythrocyte
Carry oxygen to repairing cells
36
Structure of a erythrocyte and benefits of it
Large SA:V Biconcave shape Flexible - well developed cytoskeleton to change shape through capillaries No organelles- more space for haemoglobin
37
What is a neutrophil
Type of white blood cell
38
What is the function of neutrophils
Attract to and travel towards infected sites by chemotaxis to ingest bacteria/fungi by phagocytosis
39
What is the structure of neutrophils
Multilobed nucleus Flexible - squeeze through capillaries
40
Which are larger - erythrocytes and neutrophils
Neutrophils are larger
41
What is the spermatozoa
Sperm cell
42
Adaptations of spermatozoa
Many mitochondria- carry out aerobic respiration for ATP to tail to mobs Small, long thin Enzymes released from acrosome - digest outer layer of egg Contains haploid male gametes in head
43
What are epithelial cells
Cells that make up lining tissue
44
What are squamous epithelium and how are they structured
Flattened cells that provide a surface covering/outer layer on organs Think cross section - short diffusion path Permeable
45
What are ciliated epithelium and what do they do
Cilia - moves substances across surfaces of tissues Beat in coordinated movement to shift material
46
What do goblet cells secrete
Secret mucus to trap, dust , microorganisms
47
How do cilia and goblet cells work together
Goblet cells secret the mucus Cilia waft the mucus out
48
What is a tissue
Group of similar cells working together to perform specific function
49
What are the 4 types of animal tissues
Nervous Muscle Epithelial Connective
50
What do epithelial tissues do
Covers and lines free surfaces (skin, blood vessels, heart chambers, organ walls)
51
What are epithelial tissue specialised for to carry out
Projection Absorbation Filtration Excretion Secretion
52
How are epithelial tissue structured
Close together to form continuous sheets Smooth surfaces with projections
53
What do connective tissues do
Holds structures together Provides support
54
How is connective tissue structured
Has non living extracellular matrix containing proteins and polysaccharides and seperates living cells to withstan weight
55
What do cartilage do
Strong/ flexible -provides support
56
What are the three types of cartilage
Hyaline Fibrous Elastic
57
What do muscular tissue do
allow movement
58
What are types of muscle tissue
Skeletal Cardiac Smooth
59
How are muscle cells/fibres specialised
Elongated, contain mayofilaments
60
What is nervous tissue made of and what does it conduct
Neurones Electrical impulses
61
Explain palisade cells
Within leaves for photosynthesis Pack together closely Large vacuole Cytoskeleton threads/ motors proteins to move chloroplasts nearer to upper surface of leaf
62
explain guard cells
found in the lower epidermis controls opening and closing of stomata so air can enter
63
explain root hair cells
found on outer layer of plant roots hair like projections which increases SA for absorption of mineral ions and water has special carrier proteins to actively transport ions
64
name tissues found in plants
epidermal vascular meristematic
65
what is epidermal tissue
consists of flattened cells has waxy cuticle to reduce water loss
66
what is vascular tissue
transport tissue made up of phloem and xylem
67
what is meristematic tissue
tissue containing stem cells found at the root/shoots and in cambium of vascular bundles
68
what is an organ system
a number of organs working together to carry out an overall life function

module 2: foundations to biology (6 decks)

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