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AH Biology > 2.5 Parasitism > Flashcards

2.5 Parasitism Flashcards

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1
Q

Define an ecological niche

A

An ecological niche is a multi dimensional summary of tolerances and requirements of a species

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2
Q

Define a fundemental Niche

A

A species has a fundamental niche that it occupies in the absence of any interspecific competition

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3
Q

Define a realised Niche

A

A realised niche is occupied in response to
interspecific competition

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4
Q

Define competative exclusion and its cause

A

As a result of interspecific competition, competitive exclusion can occur, where the Realised niches of two species are so similar that one declines to local extinction

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5
Q

What happens when the realised niches are sufficiently different?

A

potential competitors can co-exist
by resource partitioning

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6
Q

What is parasitism

A

Parasitism is a symbiotic interaction between
a parasite and its host (+/-)

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7
Q

What does a parasite gain from its host

A

Nutrients

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8
Q

Describe the reproductive potential in terms of parasites and hosts

A

Unlike in a predator–prey relationship, the
reproductive potential of the parasite is
greater than that of the host

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9
Q

What type of niche do most parasites have?

A

Most parasites have a narrow (specialised)
niche as they are very host-specific

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10
Q

Due to the hosts providing so many of the parasites needs, most parasites are……

A

degenerate, lacking structures and organs
found in other organisms

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11
Q

Define an ectoparasite

A

An ectoparasite lives on the surface of its
host

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12
Q

Define an endoparasite

A

an endoparasite lives within
the tissues of its host

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13
Q

Define the definitive host

A

The organism on/in which the parasite reaches sexual maturity

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14
Q

Talk about number of parasite hosts in terms of a lifecycle

A

Some parasites only require one host to complete a lifecycle, while most require more than one host.

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15
Q

What are the two types of hosts?

A
  • intermediate host
  • definitive host
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16
Q

Describe the role of a vector

A

A vector plays an active role in the transmission of the parasite and may also be a host (e.g. mosqitoes)

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17
Q

What Parasite is malaria caused by?

A

Plasmodium (endoparasite)

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18
Q

Describe the transmission of plasmodium into a human

A
  • An infected mosquito, acting as a vector, bites a human.
  • Plasmodium enters the human bloodstream.
  • Asexual reproduction occurs in the liver and then in the red blood
    cells.
  • When the red blood cells burst gametocytes are released into the
    bloodstream.
  • Another mosquito bites an infected human and the gametocytes enter the mosquito, maturing into male and female
    gametes, allowing sexual reproduction to now occur.
  • The mosquito can then infect another human host.
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19
Q

What parasite is the disease schistosomiasis caused by?

A

Schistosomes

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20
Q

Describe the transmission of Schistosomes

A
  • Schistosomes reproduce sexually in the human intestine.
  • The fertilised eggs pass out via faeces into water where they develop into larvae.
  • The larvae then infect water snails, where asexual reproduction occurs.
  • This produces another type of motile larvae, which escape the snail and penetrate the skin of a
    human, entering the bloodstream
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21
Q

Viruses are parasites that can only replicate….

A

inside a host cell

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22
Q

What are the components of a virus?

A

Contain genetic material in the form of DNA or RNA which Is packaged in a protective protein coat

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23
Q

Some viruses are surrounded by……

A

a phospholipid membrane derived from host
cell materials

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24
Q

What does the outer surface of a virus contain?

A

The outer surface of a virus contains antigens that a host cell may or may not be able to detect as foreign

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25
Q

Describe the virus life cycle stages

A
  • Infection of host cell with genetic material
  • Host cell enzymes replicate viral genome
  • Transcription of viral genes and translation of viral proteins
  • Assembly and release of new viral particles
26
Q

Describe the role of RNA retrovirus

A

RNA retroviruses use the enzyme reverse transcriptase to form DNA, which is then inserted into the genome of the host cell

27
Q

Describe a function of viral genes

A

Viral genes can then be expressed to form
new viral particles

28
Q

What is transmission

A

Spread of a parasite to a host

29
Q

Define Virulence

A

Virulence is the harm caused to a host
species by a parasite

30
Q

How are ectoparasites usually transmitted?

A

Ectoparasites are generally transmitted
through direct contact

31
Q

How are endoparasites usually transmitted?

A

Endoparasites of the body tissues are often transmitted by vectors or by consumption of intermediate hosts

32
Q

What are factors that increase transmission rates and why?

A
  • The overcrowding of hosts when they are at high density
  • vectors that allow transmission even if infected hosts are incapacitated
  • waterborne dispersal stages, that allow the parasite to spread
33
Q

What do parasites do to host behaviour sometimes?

A

exploit it to maximise transmission

34
Q

What types of host behaviours would a parasite influence and give examples.

A
  • Foraging (mosquito is more likely to feed on the blood of more than one person)
  • Movement (frogs develop additional back leg therefore moving slower and easily caught by next prey)
  • Sexual behaviour (in mayfly parasite has to return to water to find next host and so females go to lay egg’s even if they have no eggs and males act as females and try and lay eggs)
  • Habitat choice (Ant climbs to top of blade instead of going to next so it is easily eaten by next host)
  • Anti-predator behaviour (rats seek out cat urine so they are eaten by cat and the parasite is ingested by new host)
35
Q

What does the host behaviour become in terms of the parasite?

A

The host behaviour becomes part of the
extended phenotype of the parasite

36
Q

How does the parasite modify the host so that parasite growth, reproduction or transmission is increased?

A
  • Parasites often suppress the host immune system
  • Modify host size
  • Reduce host reproductive rate
37
Q

What are two categories of immune response in mammals

A

specific and non specific

38
Q

Non specific defence: Physical Barriers

A
  • Epithelial tissue blocks entry of parasites
  • nasal hair traps parasites
39
Q

Non specific defence: Chemical Secretions

A
  • Hydrolytic enzymes in mucus, saliva and
    tears destroy bacterial cell walls
  • Low pH environments of the secretions of stomach and sweat glands denatures cellular
    proteins of pathogens
40
Q

Non specific defence: Inflammatory Response

A
  • Injured cells release signalling molecules.
  • This results in enhanced blood flow to the
    site and recruitment of antimicrobial proteins and phagocytes.
41
Q

Non specific defence: Phagocytosis

A
  • Phagocytes engulf parasites and store them inside a vacuole
  • Powerful enzymes in the lysosome then digest the parasite
42
Q

Non specific defence: Natural Killer Cells

A
  • Natural killer cells can identify and attach to
    cells infected with viruses
  • Then release chemicals that lead to cell death by inducing apoptosis.
43
Q

What is the role of white blood cells

A

A range of white blood cells constantly circulate, monitoring the tissues

44
Q

Describe the role of a lymphocyte

A

Try and recognise a parasite antigen using the receptor on its surface

45
Q

Describe what happens when a lymphocyte binds to an antigen

A
  • Antigen binds to a lymphocyte’s receptor
  • Lymphocyte then divides and produces a clonal population of itself
46
Q

What two defence stratagies do lymphocytes have?

A
  • Produce antibodies
  • induce apoptosis in parasite-infected cells
47
Q

Why are antibodies specific to their binding antigen

A

Antibodies have a amino acid sequence that is special to that antibody.

48
Q

What happens when an antigen binds to its binding site

A
  • Antigen-antibody complex is formed
  • This can result in inactivation of the parasite, rendering it susceptible to a phagocyte, or can stimulate a response that results in cell lysis
49
Q

Describe how memory cells are produced

A
  • Initial antigen exposure produces memory lymphocyte cells specific for that antigen
  • Can produce a secondary response when the same antigen enters the body in the future.
  • When this occurs antibody production is enhanced in terms of speed of production, concentration in blood and duration.
50
Q

Describe how endoparasites evolve to avoid destruction

A
  • Mimic host antigens to evade detection
  • Integrating their genome into host genomes, existing in an inactive state known as latency
    (The virus becomes active again when favourable conditions arise)
  • Antigenic Variation
51
Q

Describe antigenic variation in parasites

A

Antigenic variation in some parasites allows them to change between different antigens during the course of infection of a host

It may also allow re-infection of the same host with the new variant

52
Q

Define Epidemiology

A

Epidemiology is the study of the outbreak
and spread of infectious disease

53
Q

What is the herd immunity threshold?

A

The herd immunity threshold is the density of resistant hosts in the population required to prevent an epidemic

54
Q

What do vaccines contain

A

Vaccines contain antigens that will elicit an
immune response

55
Q

What problem does similarities between hosts and parasite metabolism cause?

A

difficult to find drug
compounds that only target the parasite

56
Q

What has to be reflected in the design of vaccines

A

antigenic variation

57
Q

One reason why it may be difficult to design vaccines

A

Some parasites are difficult to culture in the laboratory making it difficult to design vaccines

58
Q

Challenges in treatment and control arise when

A

Parasites spread rapidly as a result of overcrowding or tropical climates

59
Q

Common area of overcrowding

A

Refugee campsthat result from war or natural disaster or rapidly growing cities in LEDCs.

60
Q

What may often be the only practical control stratagy for outbreaks of parasite infections?

A

Civil engineering projects to improve sanitation combined with co-ordinated vector control

61
Q

Improvements in parasite control also improves in child development and intelligence, how?

A
  • Reduces child mortality
  • individuals have more resources for growth and development

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