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Biology Module 2 > 2.1.2 > Flashcards

2.1.2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is water formed of?

A
  • 1 oxygen and 2 hydrogens that are covalently bonded.

- water molecules are joined by hydrogen bonding

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2
Q

List 8 Properties of Water

A
  • it’s a liquid over a wide range of temperatures.
  • it’s less dense when under 4 degrees centigrade.
  • it’s a good solvent.
  • cohesion and surface tension.
  • high specific heat capacity.
  • specific latent heat of vapourisation.
  • it’s a reactant.
  • it’s colourless with high transmission.
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3
Q

Why is water a liquid over a wide temperature range?

A
  • Hydrogen bonds make it hard for water molecules to escape and become a gas so more energy is required.
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4
Q

What are the benefits of water being a liquid over a wide temperature range?

A
  • can constantly move.
  • can flow easily due to high viscosity.
  • can be used for transport and as a medium for reactions.
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5
Q

Why is water less dense as ice? And what structure is formed?

A

Due to polar structure, the hydrogen bonds are stable and fix polar molecules at further distance than in liquid.
It makes a rigid open structure with oxygen in the middle of a tetrahedral arrangement.

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6
Q

What are the benefits of ice being less dense then liquid water?

A
  • forms an insulating layer.

- if it froze from bottom up, marine life wouldn’t survive.

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7
Q

Why is water a good solvent?

A

-it’s polar so it attracts other polar substances: water molecules cluster around charged parts of solute molecules/ions, keeping them apart. Making a solution.

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8
Q

What molecules do and what molecules don’t dissolve in water?

A
  • Do: ions and polar molecules.

- Don’t: non-polar molecules, triglycerides and large polymers.

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9
Q

How does cohesion happen?

A

Formation of hydrogen bonds.

Hydrogen bonds between water molecules pull them towards each other so they stick.

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10
Q

Surface tension of water…

A

…is high
And is produced by cohesion between water molecules at air-water surface as hydrogen bonds also pull molecules inwards at surface.

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11
Q

What does adhesion mean? Give one example.

A

Water molecules are attracted to surfaces.

E.g. narrow tubes in transpiration.

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12
Q

What does having high SHC mean?

A

There are no rapid temperature changes so conditions are stable in cells and aquatic environments.

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13
Q

Why does water have high SCH?

A

The hydrogen bonds between molecules absorb a lot of energy

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14
Q

Why does water have a high SLH of vapourisation?

A

Lot of energy is needed to break hydrogen bonds for it to become a gas.

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15
Q

What is a benefit of high SLH of vapourisation?

A

Used to cool organisms. E.g. sweat.

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16
Q

What properties of water aid in photosynthesis?

A
  • it’s a reactant

- has high transmission so light can pass through cells for photosynthesis.

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17
Q

What are polymers?

A

Molecules that are made from a large number of monomers joined together.

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18
Q

What’s a condensation reaction?

A

Joins two molecules together with the formation of a chemical bond.
It involves the elimination of a water molecule.

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19
Q

What’s a hydrolysis reaction?

A

The separation of two molecules by breaking a chemical bond, using a molecule of water.

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20
Q

What chemical elements make up:

  • carbohydrates
  • lipids
  • proteins
  • nucleic acids
A

Carbohydrates: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Lipids: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Proteins: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur
Nucleic Acids: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus

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21
Q

What are glucose molecules?

A
  • a monosaccharide that has 6 carbons.

- a hexose monosaccharide

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22
Q

Why is glucose soluble in water?

A

Because it’s polar.

And is soluble in water due to hydrogen bonds between hydroxyl group and water molecule.

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23
Q

What is the difference between alpha and beta glucose?

A

Alpha glucose has the hydroxide on the first carbon under whereas beta glucose has the hydroxide on the first carbon on top.

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24
Q

What is an isomer?

A

A compound with the same chemical formula but a different chemical structure.

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25
Q

When does a condensation reaction happen in glucose and how?

A

When two hydroxides are so close they react forming a covalent bond (glycosidic bond).
Happens between first and fourth carbon.
Water is a product.

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26
Q

What type of bond is formed between two glucose molecules?

A

Glycosidic bond.

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27
Q

What is a monosaccharide?

A
  • simple sugar

- general formula: (CH2O)n

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28
Q

What do trioses do? Give an example of one.

A

Intermediates in respiration and photosynthesis.

E.g. glyceraldehydes

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29
Q

What do pentoses do? Name two examples.

A

Synthesis nucleic acids, co-enzymes, ATP

E.g. ribose/ribulose

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30
Q

What do he hexoses do? Give two examples.

A

Source of energy in respiration/ building blocks for larger molecules
E.g. glucose/fructose

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31
Q

What is sucrose formed of?

A

Alpha glucose and fructose

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32
Q

What is maltose formed of?

A

Two Alpha glucose molecules

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33
Q

What is lactose formed of?

A

Alpha glucose and galactose

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34
Q

How do you form two monosaccharides from a disaccharide?

A

Through a hydrolysis reaction using one water molecule to supply H and Oh to the sugars.

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35
Q

What is RNA?

A

A single stranded polymer. (Polynucleotide).

It’s formed of nucleotides joined by phosphodiester bonds.

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36
Q

What is starch formed of?

A

Amylose and amylopectin

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37
Q

What is glycogen made of?

A

Alpha glucose

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38
Q

What is cellulose made of?

A

Beta glucose

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39
Q

What would happen if glucose was to dissolve in the cytoplasm?

A

Water potential would decrease.
Meaning water would enter by osmosis.
This can disrupt normal functioning of cell.

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40
Q

How is starch formed?

A

When alpha glucose monomers are joined by glycosidic bonds during condensation reactions.

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41
Q

What shape do amylose and amylopectin take?

A

Spiral shape, held in place by hydrogen bonds.

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42
Q

What makes amylose less soluble?

A

The OH on carbon 2 are on the inside of the spiral

43
Q

Describe the structure of amylose.

A

Formed of alpha glucose molecules joined by 1,4 glycosidic bonds.
It’s in a helix shape due to the angle of the bonds.
Shape is held in place by hydrogen bonds.

44
Q

Describe the structure of amylopectin.

A

It’s branched, menacing glucose can break off from multiple places to get required amounts.
1,6 glycosidic bonds happen approximately every 25 glucose subunits.

45
Q

Describe the structure of cellulose.

A

It’s a homopolysaccharide made up of beta glucose, with 1,4 glycosidic bond.
Every other beta glucose is rotated 180 degrees.

46
Q

Describe the structure of glycogen.

A

Made from alpha glucose that’s got 1.4 glycosidic bonds between monosaccharides except 1.6 glycosidic bonds between adjacent ones in branches

47
Q

What is the function of starch?

A

Main storage polysaccharide in plants

48
Q

What is the function of cellulose?

A

It’s the main structural constituent of plant cell walls.

Is strong enough to support the plant as it doesn’t have a skeleton.

49
Q

What is the function of glycogen?

A

Main storage polysaccharide in animals and fungi.

50
Q

Why is it important that glycogen is more branched?

A

It means it’s more compact which is important as animals are mobile than plants.

51
Q

Glycogen in liver cells…

A

… occurs in dense granules where it can make up 7% of the liver

52
Q

What are the main characteristics of lipids?

A
  • non-polar

- hydrophobic

53
Q

Why are lipids non-polar?

A

The electrons on the outer orbital are more evenly distributed than in a polar molecule so there are no positive/negative areas.
Making it insoluble in water.

54
Q

What are triglycerides made of?

A 
1 glycerol (an alcohol)
3 fatty acids (carboxyl acid)
55
Q

How are triglycerides formed?

A

Through condensation reactions, also known as esterification.

56
Q

What bonds are made and what is produced during the condensation reaction that makes triglycerides?

A

Ester bonds

3 water molecules

57
Q

What are phospholipids made of?

A

2 fatty acids
1 glycerol
1 phosphate group

58
Q

Why are phospholipids soluble in water?

A

The inorganic phosphate ions are negatively charged.

59
Q

What part of the phospholipids are hydrophilic and hydrophobic?

A

Hydrophilic head.

Hydrophobic tails.

60
Q

Why are phospholipids called surface active agents and what’s another name for this?

A

Because of their hydrophobic/hydrophilic nature, when interacting with water a layer on surface will form:
-phosphate heads in water
-fatty acid tails sticking out.
SURFACTANTS

61
Q

What are saturated fatty acids?

A

Fatty acid chains with No double bonds between the carbon atoms.

62
Q

What are unsaturated fatty acids?

A

Fatty acid chains with One or more double bonds between carbon atoms.

63
Q

Why are UFAs liquid at room temperature?

A

Double bonds cause a kink or a bend.

Meaning they can’t pack together closely

64
Q

What is cholesterol?

A

A hydrophobic organic molecule, which is a sterol.

65
Q

What’s the function of cholesterol in the plasma membrane?

A

It sits between the hydrophobic non-polar fatty acid chains of the balayer.
It adds stability. (Structural integrity)
It regulates membrane fluidity.
Makes up 30% of plasma membrane.

66
Q

Describe the structure of cholesterol.

A
  • 4 carbon based rings, known as isoprene units.

- hydrophobic except for the OH at the end.

67
Q

State 4 roles of lipids.

A
  • membrane formation and creation of hydrophobic barriers.
  • hormone production.
  • electric insulation necessary for impulse transmission.
  • waterproofing (leaves/birds feathers)
68
Q

State 4 functions of lipids particularly triglycerides.

A

-buoyancy for aquatic animals.
-thermal insulation to reduce heat loss
-cushioning to protect vital organs.
Long term energy storage

69
Q

Describe the general structure of an amino acid.

A

Has an amine group (basic)
Has a carboxyl group (acidic)
Has an R-group

70
Q

What does it mean when something can act as an acid or a base in water?

A

Amphoteric

71
Q

What are the names of monomers and polymers in proteins?

A 
Monomers= amino acids
Polymers= dipeptide and polypeptide
72
Q

How does a dipeptide form?

A

Carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amine group of the second amino acid. In a condensation reaction.

73
Q

In the formation of a dipeptide what is formed?

A

Water.

Peptide linkage.

74
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein?

A

Sequence in where amino acids are joined.

75
Q

What bonds are present in the primary structure?

A

Peptide bonds

76
Q

What is the secondary structure?

A

When the primary structure coils to form either alpha helix or beta pleated sheet

77
Q

How does the secondary structure form?

A

Hydrogen bonds form at regions along long protein molecules depending on amino acids.

78
Q

How does alpha helix form?

A

H.bonds form within the amino acid chains pulling it it to a coil shape

79
Q

How does beta pleated sheet form?

A

When h.bonds form between parallel polypeptide chains.

Forming sheet like structures.

80
Q

What’s the tertiary structure?

A

The final shape where the coiling/folding brings the R-groups of different amino acids closer enough to interact.

81
Q

What are hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions?

A

Weak interactions between polar and non-polar R-groups.

82
Q

What are the four different interactions between R-groups in the tertiary structure?

A
  • hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions.
  • hydrogen bonds
  • ionic bonds
  • disulfide bonds (disulfide bridges)
83
Q

What are ionic bonds in the tertiary structure?

A

Between opposite,y charger R-groups, are stronger than H.bonds

84
Q

Hydrogen bonds in the tertiary structure are the…

A

…weakest of all bonds

85
Q

What are disulfide bonds?

A

Covalent bonds between R-groups that have sulfur atoms.

Strongest of all bonds.

86
Q

What is a quaternary structure?

A

2 or more individual proteins called subunits.

That are joined by the same interactions in the tertiary structure.

87
Q

What are three features of globular proteins?

A
  • compact
  • water soluble
  • roughly spherical
88
Q

How are the R-groups arranged?

A

Hydrophobic R-groups on amino acids are kept away from aqueous environment.
Hydrophilic R-groups are on the outside of the proteins.

89
Q

Why is it good that globular proteins are soluble?

A

Essential for regulating many necessary life processes.

90
Q

Three features of insulin:

A
  • regulated of blood glucose concentration.
  • transported in blood so needs to be soluble.
  • needs to fit into specific receptors on cell surface membrane so precise shapes are needed.
91
Q

What are conjugated proteins?

A

Globular proteins that have a prosthetic groups (non-protein component).

92
Q

Two examples of prosthetic groups:

A
  • lipids/carbs

- metal ions and molecules derived from vitamins

93
Q

Why is haemoglobin a conjugated protein?

A

Each subunit of the protein has a haem group.

94
Q

What’s haem’s function in haemoglobin?

A

The iron II ions combine reversibly with oxygen.

So it enables this protein to transport oxygen around the body.

95
Q

What is catalase?

A

An enzyme.

A quaternary protein containing 4 harm prosthetic groups

96
Q

What’s the haem in the catalase responsible for?

A

The iron II ions allow catalase to interact with hydrogen peroxide and speed up its break down.

97
Q

What is hydrogen peroxide?

A

A common byproduct of metabolism.

It’s damaging cells/ cell components if allowed to accumulate.

98
Q

Why are fibrous proteins long and insoluble molecules?

A

Repetitive amino acid sequence in primary structure leads to very organised structures .

99
Q

What is keratin?

A
  • hair skin nails

- has a lot of sulfur containing amino acids which make strong disulfide bonds

100
Q

Name the sulfur containing amino acid…

A

… cysteine

101
Q

Where is elastin found?

A
  • walls of blood vessels.

- alveoli of lungs.

102
Q

What is elastin made of?

A

A quaternary protein made from many stretchy molecules called tropoelastine

103
Q

What is collagen?

A
  • connective tissue found in skin, tendons,ligaments and nervous system.
  • made up of 3 polypeptides wound together in a long and strong rope-like structure.

Biology Module 2 (5 decks)

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