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H2 Biology > 2.1 DNA Structure And Replication > Flashcards

2.1 DNA Structure And Replication Flashcards

1
Q

Components of deoxyribonucleotide vs ribonucleotide (3)

A

1) deoxyribose vs. ribose (pentose) sugar
2) nitrogenous base (ATCG vs. AUCG)
3) phosphate group

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2
Q

Pentose sugars occur as ____ forms

A

Ring

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3
Q

In nucleic acids, the 5’ carbon of the pentose sugar is linked to the ________ ____ in an ____ bond

A

Phosphate group; ester

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4
Q

In nucleic acids, the 1’ carbon of the pentose sugar is linked to the ___________ ____ in an _________ bond.

A

Nitrogenous base; glycosidic

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5
Q

Difference in structure of deoxyribose VS ribose

A

At the 2’ carbon, deoxyribose has a hydrogen atom, instead of a hydroxyl group like in ribose

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6
Q

Properties pentose sugars confer on the nucleotide (2):

A

1) Provides OH groups that contribute to its hydrophilicity
2) Allows for the addition of nucleotides due to a free 3’ OH group

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7
Q

Explain why there is a difference in structure between RNA and DNA (hint: helix)

A

RNA is a less tightly coiled helix as DNA, as the partial neg. charge of the -OH grp in ribose repels the neg. charge of the phosphate

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8
Q

S->Property of RNA

A

As RNA exists as a less tightly coiled helix, it is more susceptible to chemical and enzyme degradation

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9
Q

2 types of nitrogenous bases

A

Purines (AG)
Pyrimidines (CT/U)

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10
Q

Structure of purines (hint: rings)

A

Have a 6 membered (nitrogen-containing) ring fused to a 5 membered ring

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11
Q

Structure of pyrimidines (hint: ring)

A

Have a 6-membered ring

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12
Q

Pure As Gold

A

Purines — Adenine, Guanine

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13
Q

Pyrimidines are CUT from purines

A

Pyrimidines — cytosine, uracil, thymine
— one ring

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14
Q

Thymine: the meTHYl is MINE

A

Add. Methyl substituent at C5

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15
Q

Nucleoside =

A

pentose sugar + nitrogenous base

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16
Q

Glycosidic bond: the __’ carbon of the pentose is linked to the nitrogenous base via a __________ ______.

A

1; condensation reaction

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17
Q

Nucleotide =

A

Nucleoside + phosphate grp

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18
Q

A ________ bond is formed between the _’ carbon of the pentose and the ________ _____, in a __________ _______.

A

Phosphoester; 5; phosphate group; condensation reaction

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19
Q

dATP

A

deoxyadenosine triphosphate

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20
Q

GMP

A

guanosine monophosphate

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21
Q

The _’ phosphate group of one nucleotide and the _’ hydroxyl group of the other is joined in a ___________ bond via _________.

A

5, 3, phosphodiester, condensation

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22
Q

Phosphodiester bonds between 5’ phosphate and 3’ hydroxyl group of nucleotides form a ________, ________, sugar-phosphate backbone.

A

Linear, unbranched

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23
Q

Role of phosphodiester bonds (2)

A

1) They confer strength and stability to the polynucleotide chain, as they are strong covalent bonds
2) prevents breakage of chain during DNA replication

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24
Q

5’ end of DNA/RNA chain:

A

Free 5’ carbon carrying a phosphate group

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25
Q

3’ end of DNA/RNA chain:

A

Free 3’ carbon carrying a hydroxyl group

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26
Q

DNA consists of two a_________ ___________ _____, which ____ around each other to form a _______ _____.

A

Antiparallel polynucleotide strands; coil; double helix

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27
Q

Antiparallel

A

One strand is oriented in the 5’ to 3’ direction while the other in the 3’ to 5’ direction.

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28
Q

Significance of antiparallel SP backbone

A

1) DNA polymerase moves in opposite directions along the two strands, as it only adds nucleotides in the 5’ to 3’ direction.
2) allows for complementary base pairs to fit together.

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29
Q

Each strand forms a _____-_______ helix

A

Right-handed

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30
Q

Diameter of helix is

A

Uniformly 2 nm

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31
Q

The centre of the double-helix has enough space for

A

1 purine (AG) and 1 pyrimidine (CT)

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32
Q

Orientation of phosphate grps

A

Project outside the double helix, as they are hydrophilic

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33
Q

Orientation of nitrogenous bases

A

They orientate inwards toward the central axis at almost right angles, as they are hydrophobic

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34
Q

The bases of opposite strands are bonded tgt by _________ _____, according to rules of _____________ ____ ______.

A

Hydrogen bonding; complementary base pairing

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35
Q

s______ complementary base pairing occur between &, and between &

A

A and T (2 H bonds)
C and G (3 H bonds)

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36
Q

Significance of complementary base pairing

A

The base sequence in one strand determines the base sequence in the complementary strand

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37
Q

S->P: weak hydrogen bonds

A

They make it relatively easy to separate the two strands of the DNA e.g. by heating

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38
Q

0.34nm

A

Distance between Base pairs stacked along The Central axis.

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39
Q

The double helix makes a complete turn every

A

10 base pairs

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40
Q

Each turn is ____nm

A

3.4nm

41
Q

Definition of major and minor grooves, and their S—>Property

A

Grooves of unequal sizes between sugar-phosphate backbones, which are large enough to allow proteins to gain access and make contact with the bases

42
Q

Combination of bases assuming x no. Of nucleotides

A

4 to the power of x

43
Q

The linear sequence of the four bases can be ______ in countless ways.

A

Varied

44
Q

Due to the wide variety of linear bp sequence, each gene

A

Has a unique base sequence, which contains information to make a unique protein

45
Q

Function of DNA

A

Stores and transmits genetic information

46
Q

P->F of DNA: store of genetic information

A

The base sequence is stable and invariant, making DNA a stable store of genetic information (relatively resistant to spontaneous changes)

47
Q

S->P: stability of DNA double helix (both prok. and euk.) (4)

A

1) extensive hydrogen bonds between bp
2) hydrophobic interactions between stacked bp
3) Only the sugar-phosphate backbone is exposed to outside influences
4) nitrogenous bases are safely tucked inside double helix

48
Q

S->P: stability of double helix (euk. only)

A

DNA double helix is tightly wound around histones to form repeating array of nucleosomes, which are eventually folded into chromosomes. This protects DNA from thermal and physical damage (prevents degradation)

49
Q

S->P: invariant base sequence (3)

A

1) Structure: there is complementary base pairing between DNA strands
2) Hence, genetic info is redundant (helps DNA maintain integrity)
3) A cell can discard a damaged strand with an altered base sequence, and synthesise a new strand using the remaining strand as a template, using rules of complementary base pairing.

50
Q

Summary of how add. of nucleotides works (enzyme, bonds, reaction) (3)

A

1) DNA pol. reads the template DNA strand
2) It catalyses the addition of [nucleotide], based on rules of complementary base pairing
2) Phosphodiester bonds are formed via condensation reaction between the free 3’ OH group of the last nucleotide and 5’ phosphate group of the incoming nucleotide

51
Q

Semi-conservative model of DNA replication (2)

A

1) Parental DNA strands separate and each acts as a template of the synthesis for a new DNA strand by CBP.
2) Each of the two daughter DNA molecules consist of one parental DNA strand and one newly-synthesised daughter DNA strand

52
Q

Conservative model of replication

A

Parental DNA molecule emerges from the replication process intact, and generate DNA copies consisting of entirely new molecules

53
Q

Dispersive model of replication

A

All four strands of DNA in daughter DNA molecules have a mixture of parental and new DNA

54
Q

Semiconservative model: Percentage of DNA after 1st and 2nd replication

A

1st: all hybrid DNA
2nd: half light DNA and half hybrid DNA

55
Q

Conservative model: Percentage of DNA after 1st and 2nd replication

A

1st: half light DNA and half heavy DNA
2nd: 3/4 light DNA and 1/4 heavy DNA

56
Q

Dispersive model: Percentage of DNA after 1st and 2nd replication

A

1st and 2nd: all hybrid DNA

57
Q

Characteristics of DNA replication process (5)

A

1) Complex and precise: double helix must unwind while the DNA pol. assembles the new antiparallel strands simultaneously
2) Fast: few hours to copy ~3x10^9 base pairs
3) Accurate: mutation rate is ~1 nucleotide change per 10^9 nucleotide each replication
4) Requires cooperation of large team of enzymes and other proteins
5) requires expenditure of ATP

58
Q

Where does DNA replication begin

A

Origin of replication

59
Q

OriR structure and composition

A

Each oriR is a specific sequence of nucleotides, which is generally A-T rich

60
Q

Why is oriR A-T rich?

A

Only 2 H bonds between A-T base pair, hence it is easier for helicase to disrupt the bonds as less energy is needed to overcome them

61
Q

_________ ________ recognise the oriR sequence and bind to it. The DNA double helix _________ into two strands, forming a __________ _______.

A

Initiator proteins; separates; replication bubble

62
Q

Replication fork (structure, location, process there)

A

Y-shaped structure at each end of the replication bubble, where new strands of DNA are synthesised

63
Q

Two replication forks _____ ____ from the oriR as replication proceeds ____________, until the entire DNA molecule is ________.

A

Move away; bidirectionally; separated

64
Q

DNA replication in prokaryotes (DNA, oriR, directional)

A

1) small circular DNA molecule
2) single oriR
3) proceeds bidirectionally to a termination site ~halfway around the circular chromosome

65
Q

Diff between prok. and euk. (shape of DNA, oriR)

A

1) small circular DNA molecule VS linear DNA molecule
2) one oriR VS multiple oriR

66
Q

Replication bubbles expand ________, as DNA replication proceeds __________, and they eventually _____, thus ending DNA replication.

A

Laterally; bidirectionally; fuse

67
Q

Advantage of multiple oriR

A

Speed (it speeds up copying of very long DNA molecule)
Would have taken 100 times longer with one oriR

68
Q

After initiation, helicases bind to __ ______ of the DNA molecule

A

1 strand

69
Q

Function of helicase

A

To unwind the DNA double helix and separate the parental DNA strands

70
Q

Mechanism of helicase

A

They break the hydrogen bonds (between complementary bases) holding the two DNA strands together, using ATP as an energy source

71
Q

Function of single-strand DNA binding proteins (SSB proteins) (2)

A

1) They bind to and stabilise the unwound ss portion of the DNA double helix, which prevents the ss DNA from reannealing to reform the double helix
2) straighten the DNA chain, facilitating DNA replication

72
Q

Significance of stability of ss portion of DNA double helix (2)

A

1) Keeps the two parental strands in the appropriate ss condition to act as template for synthesis of new DNA strand
2) protects the ssDNA, which is very unstable, from being degraded

73
Q

Mechanism of Topoisomerase

A

Cleaves a strand of the helix to create a transient ss nick

74
Q

Why is topoisomerase needed? (Problem, solution)

A

1) Unwinding causes tighter twisting ahead of the RF, resulting in strain
2) Cleaving relieves strain on the DNA molecule by allowing free rotation around the intact strand, before the broken strand is resealed

75
Q

Limitations of DNA polymerase (2)

A

1) DNA polymerase cannot initiate DNA synthesis independently, as they require a free 3’ OH end
2) They only add dNTPs to the free 3’ end of a growing DNA strand => a DNA strand can only elongate in the 5’ to 3’ direction

76
Q

To initiate synthesis of a DNA strand, an ____ ______ is needed.

A

RNA primer

77
Q

A portion of the parental DNA strand serves as a _______ for making the RNA ______ with the _____________ ____ ________.

A

template; primer; complementary base sequence

78
Q

Primase function

A

Joins ribonucleotides (about 10 nucleotides long) to synthesise the primer

79
Q

Significance of RNA primer

A

It provides a free 3’ OH end that DNA polymerase can extend

80
Q

Function of DNA pol. I

A

It has 5’ to 3’ exonuclease activity and it later replaces the RNA nucleotides of the primer with dNTPs

81
Q

Direction in which DNA polymerase reads the template DNA

A

3’ to 5’

82
Q

DNA pol. assembles the dNTPs for the new daughter DNA strand based on

A

Complementary base-pairing

83
Q

Describe how DNA pol. 3 conducts proofreading

A

When incorrect base pair is recognised, DNA pol. reverses its direction by one base pair (3’ to 5’) and excises the b.p. using 3’->5’ exonuclease activity

84
Q

DNA pol. catalyses [general]

A

phosphodiester bond formation between growing DNA daughter strand and incoming nucleotide

85
Q

DNA pol. catalyses [specific]

A

phosphoester bond formation between free 3’OH group of the last nucleotide in the growing daughter strand and the free 5’ phosphate group of an incoming dNTP

86
Q

Why can synthesis of daughter DNA strands only occur in the 5’ to 3’ direction? (hint: structure of DNA pol.)

A

Active site of DNA pol. 3 has specific 3D conformation that is complementary only to 3’OH group of the growing polynucleotide strand

87
Q

incoming dNTP loses a __________ group when they form a phosphoester bond with the growing DNA daughter strand

A

pyrophosphate

88
Q

Why is continuous synthesis of both DNA strands (i.e, okazaki fragments needed) not possible? (4)

A

1) DNA strands are antiparallel
2) DNA pol. can only add nucleotides to the free 3’OH end of a growing DNA strand
3) Thus, elongation of daughter DNA strand can only occur in 5’ to 3’ direction
4) As replication fork opens, it exposes the template for the lagging strand at the 5’ end of the new DNA strand, hence a new primer is needed.

89
Q

Leading strand synthesis

A

complementary daughter DNA strand is continuously synthesised in a 5’ to 3’ manner, towards the replication fork (does not require ligase)

90
Q

Lagging strand synthesis

A

discontinously synthesised as a series of short Okazaki fragments in a 5’ to 3’ manner, against overall direction of the RF (requires ligase)

91
Q

No. of nucleotides per Okazaki fragment

A

100-200

92
Q

How are Okazaki Fragments linked to form a continuous DNA strand? (DNA pol. and DNA ligase)

A

1) DNA pol. replaces RNA primer with dNTPs
2) DNA ligase catalyses formation of phosphoester bond between 3’ OH end of Okazaki fragment and 5’ end of growing daughter DNA strand

93
Q

Describe the end replication problem.

A

occurs when the DNA pol. is incapable of completely replicating the ends of linear chromosomes, resulting in the shorter telomeres / 3’ overhang

94
Q

Reason for end replication problem

A

DNA polymerase can only extend in 5’ –> 3’ direction. When FINAL RNA primer of the terminal Okazaki fragment is removed by DNA pol., there is no upstream strand with a free 3’ OH grp available to which it can add dNTPs to

95
Q

After first round of replication…

A

the newly synthesisesd daughter DNA strands are shorter than its template strand

96
Q

Chargaff’s Rules

A

amount of A=T and amount of G= C, as adenine and thymine are complementary, and same goes for cytosine and thymine

97
Q

Base composition of DNA is constant (__________ _______ ____) for that organism and is characteristic for a (______ _______).

A

throughout somatic cells; certain species

98
Q

How does the structure of DNA enable semi-conservative replication?

A

Both strands can act as templates, for the assembly of nucleotides based on CBP.
Thus, each DNA molecule consists of one parental strand and one new strand

H2 Biology (4 decks)

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