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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Limnology:

A

Multidisciplinary to the study of all inland water communities, and their interactions with physical, chemical and biological environments

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2
Q

-euphotic zone:

A

littoral zone (intertidal zone), neritic zone, epipelagic zone

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3
Q

littoral zone (intertidal zone)

A

shallow shoreline, influence of tides- high productivity gets sufficient light and gets nutrients from ocean and terrestrial run off- waves - most things live in this zone

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4
Q

aphotic zone

A

reduced -> no light

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5
Q

benthic

A

bottom sediment

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6
Q

If the conditions exceed the optimum species
ranges, the species may have to:

A

– Migrate to more suitable locations
– Dormancy
– Adapt/acclimate to changing conditions

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7
Q

Stabilizing selection

A
  • Extreme phenotypes are selected against and average phenotypes are favoured
  • Average traits have the best survival
  • Eliminates harmful mutations
    – Maintains status quo
    (no evolution)
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8
Q

natural selection mechanisms

A
  • Stabilizing selection
  • Directional selection
  • Disruptive selection
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9
Q

Directional selection

A
  • An extreme trait has increased survival, traits move toward the “better” or “most adapted” trait
  • New beneficial mutations are fixed in the population
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10
Q

Disruptive selection

A
  • 2 traits have increased fitness, traits move to bimodal
  • Or intermediate trait is selected against
  • Responsible in part for sympatric speciation
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11
Q

Microevolution

A

– operates at the population level
– random and selection processes

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12
Q

Macroevolution:

A

– operates at the species and higher taxonomic levels
– speciation

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13
Q

Species

A

species:
– Organisms that form a natural
population
– Reproductively isolated
– Will transmit specific characteristics
from parent to offspring

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14
Q

BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT (BSC)

A

– A group of organisms reproductively isolated from
similar organivsms =
* Infertile organisms will arise when different species crossed

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15
Q

ecocline

A

a gradual change in a genotype or a phenotype of a species over a large geographic area

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16
Q

ecotype

A

individuals of a species on opposite ends may appear very diff from eachother. if genetically distinct from each other they may be called a subspecies or separate species

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17
Q

Allopatric Speciation

A

-Geographic isolation,
no movement of population
-Genetic differentiation

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18
Q

Parapatric Speciation

A

– Movement into a new habitat, no isolation
– New genes dominant and excel in new habitat
– Habitat expansion
– Divergence may occur because of reduced gene flow

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19
Q

Sympatric Speciation

A

– Genetic drift occurring when populations are free moving with no barriers
– New niche exploited
– Randomly mating species
– may result due to assortative mating

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20
Q

To avoid heating, plants have (3)
options:

A
  1. Decrease heating via conduction (Hcd)
  2. Increase convective cooling (Hcv)
  3. Reduce radiative heating (Hr)
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21
Q

response to water stress

A

– Plant stomata are typically more active in cooler, humid part
of the day. (reduction in water loss)
– Alter leaf shape or plant shape (short term vs. evolved)
– Prematurely drop leaves
– Water stress inhibits the production of chlorophyll
– Increase root development

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22
Q

Consequences of water stress

A

A reduction in the growth rate of the plant with a smaller leaf area

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23
Q

Plants in a high temperature environment must to maintain heat balance by

A

– Place leaves above the ground to avoid the ground convective heat
– Small leaves to promote convective cooling (and increase air flow to the
stem)
– Hairs on leaves will reflect light
– Leaves will orientate parallel to the sunlight to reduce radiative heat gain

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24
Q

population

A

is a group of individuals of the same species living in a given area at the
same time.

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25
Q

community

A

a group of plants and animals interacting in a particular region

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26
Q

microclimate

A

-microclimate: is a specific habitat (small scale) of an area which may differ from the general climate of the area
-ground colour- darker colours absorb more light
boulders/burrows-create shaded cooler environments

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27
Q

Thermal neutral zone

A

the range of ambient temperatures where the body can maintain its core temperature solely through regulating dry heat loss, i.e., skin blood flow. A living body can only maintain its core temperature when heat production and heat loss are balanced.

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28
Q

order of indivi

A

-individuals, population,community, ecosystem, landscape, region, biosphere

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29
Q

law of tolerance

A

distribution and abundance of species depends on deviation between local conditions and optimal conditions for species

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30
Q

Poikilotherms

A

Body temperature varies directly
with environmental temperatures.

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31
Q

Homeotherms

A

– maintain a relatively constant
internal environment.

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32
Q

Ectotherms

A

– Rely mainly on external energy

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33
Q

Endotherms

A

– Rely heavily on metabolic energy

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34
Q

Short horned lizard of Alberta

A

both Poikilotherms and Ectotherms

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35
Q

marine fish

A

ectotherms that are homeothermic

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36
Q

fitness

A

Fitness is the quantitative representation of individual reproductive success. It is also equal to the average contribution to the gene pool of the next generation, made by the same individuals of the specified genotype or phenotype.

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37
Q

genetic drift

A

the change in frequency of an existing gene variant in the population due to random chance.

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38
Q

gene flow

A

the transfer of genetic material from one population to another. Gene flow can take place between two populations of the same species through migration, and is mediated by reproduction and vertical gene transfer from parent to offspring.

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39
Q

Tundra-

A

lacking trees because of moisture conditions,less evaporation, sufficient moisture. Soils low decomposition, plants are slow growing, not great diversity but good abundance.

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40
Q

boreal forest/ tiaga

A

extremely variable in temp- moderate precipitate low evaporation= water accumulation- soil is low fertility thin and acidic, low decomposition

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41
Q

temperate forest

A

. Temperatures have low variability - heavy precipitation- precipitation heavy in winter, fall and spring . fertile soils

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42
Q

river zones

A

epilimion- warm, low density
thermocline- zone of rapid temp change
hypolimnion-cold high density

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43
Q

ecosystem ecology

A

Biological, physical, and chemical processes and interactions.

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44
Q

why high productivity in intertidal

A

conc of nutrients, force of waves, temp, solar radiation

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45
Q

Earth’s climatic variation is due to

A

spherical shape of earth, unevening heating of earths surface, earths axial rotation as it orbits

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46
Q

influences of soil structure

A

age, parent material, climate, organisms

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47
Q

oligotrophic lakes

A

high oxygen, low nutrients, deep and clear waters, low productivtity
Due to cool temperatures they store oxygen better (look up oxygen storage of water at varying temperatures)

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48
Q

Ectotherms often use ________ strategies to maintain an optimum operative temperature range.

A

behavioural

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49
Q

genetic diversity

A

mutations, crossing over, independent assortment, gene flow
- not genetic drift

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50
Q

plants dealing with water stress

A

closing stomata, developing thick leaves, alternative water conserving pathways for photosynthesis, dropping and wilting leaves

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51
Q

bogs and fens

A

have low salitity, nutrient limination, water logged soils, anaerobic environments

difference
bogs have low ph
fens can be basic or acidic

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52
Q

An annual plant adapts to cold temperatures by:

A

completing its life cycle in a single year

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53
Q

ecotypes.

A

Locally adapted and genetically distinctive populations within a species are referred to as

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54
Q

plant located in an arid climate will possess all of the following in order to prevent water loss

A

reduced leaf size,
decreased shoot biomass,
increased root length,
waxy coating.

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55
Q

amensalism

A

one organism isnt effected and the other is negatively effected

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56
Q

most intense competition

A

closely related species. intra more than inter

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57
Q

gauses (competitive exclusion) principle

A

-no two species with same niche can coexist. one will outcompete the other. the winner may be random if identical

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58
Q

exploitative or indirect competition

A

competition to secure resources first.
-consumptive
-premeptive

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59
Q

consumptive

A

one species overconsumes the food

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60
Q

pre- emptive

A

occupying an area

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61
Q
A

exploitative, interference

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62
Q

interference

A

direct aggressive interaction between individuals
-overgrowth
-chemical interference
-territorial
-encounter

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63
Q

over growth

A

one species out growing another

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64
Q

chemical interference

A

use chemical to limit growth
allelopathy-prevent growth, germination

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65
Q

territorial

A

defence of an area

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66
Q

encounter

A

direct fighting for a resource

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67
Q

mechanisms of competition

A

consumption, pre emption, overgrowth, alleopathym,territory,encounter

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68
Q

fundamental niche

A
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69
Q

realized niche

A
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70
Q

removal of a competitor results in

A

increased growth
increased nutrients
expanded range

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71
Q

liebigs law of the minimum

A

population increases until critical resource is limiting

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72
Q

what is needed for specie to co exist

A

habitat differences
food differences
different activity time

73
Q

coexistance may occur if

A
  1. resources are not limiting, low competition
    2.resource partitioning-species will use differing sizes of prey, different feeding times - species will exploit only a portion of resources unavailable to othersresulting in the coexistance of species
74
Q

herbivory

A

exploitative interaction- reduces fitness of plant

75
Q

consumptive effects

A

direct effects predators have on prey populations through capture and consummption =death

76
Q

non consumptive effects

A

indirect effects - changes in prey as a consequence of predators being present, even when prey arent killed

77
Q

indirect effects on the behaviour of prey

A

vigilance, habitat selection, grouping, inducible defenses, fear

78
Q

assumptions of loltka volterra equations

A
  1. in absence of predators, prey grow exponentially (logistically)
    2.predator limited only by availability of prey
  2. prey and predator reproduce continuously, have no age structure and are all identical
    4.models assume predation is random
    5.predator mortality rate is density independant
79
Q

general outcomes of lv model

A

-extinction of predator,survival of prey
-exrinction of prey followed by extinction of predator
-oscillations that dampen to stable point
-oscillations that increase until the extinction of one
-immediate stable limit cycle
-immediate stable point

80
Q

laws of population ecology

A

-populations tend to grow exponetially
-populations show self limiations
-consumer resource interactions tend to be oscillatory

81
Q

factors contributing to stable limit cycle

A

-rarity of prey drives predators down
-predators catch up and reduce prey
-prey not limited(rapid increase)predators not consuming at fmax dont respond
-carrying capacity slows prey

82
Q

to get oscillations or co existence (My hair and nails)

A

-multiple predators
-heterogenity
-addition of individuals (immigration)
–non random predation

83
Q

reality of predation

A

-predation is not random
-prey have refuges
-predators may have a carrying capacity unrelated to prey
-generation times differ between prey and predator
-predators may be generalists
-multiple equilibria may occur

84
Q

prey defenses against predators

A

-chemical
-protective armour
-crypsis - camoflages
-object resemblance
-flashing colour
-behaviour
-aposematism- warning colours
mullerian mimicry

85
Q

deimatic behaviour

A

sudden threatening or startling behaviour

86
Q

batesian mimicry

A

colours resemble poisonous

87
Q

lethal

A
88
Q

sublethal

A
89
Q

plant defenses to grazing

A

sructural
-thorns, spines, c:n ratio

90
Q

avoiding predation- refuges

A

spatial refuge- areas of escape
temporal refuges- alter phenology and growth rate

91
Q

refuges- body size

A

large body size

92
Q

large groups - refuges

A
93
Q

trophic cascade

A

a progression of indirect effects by predators across succesfullu lower trophic levels

94
Q

location parasites

A

endoparasite-living within the host
ectoparasite-living on the host

95
Q

size parasites

A

micro parasite
macro parasite

96
Q

host vulnerable to infection

A

-host immune response

97
Q

facultative-

A

mutualism can live without partner

98
Q

obligate

A

cannot live without mutualistic partner

99
Q

non symbiotic

A

-species do not physically coexist
seed dispersal

100
Q

for a population to be mutualistic

A

-fitness of successful mutuals must be greater than either unsucessful or nonmutualists
-combined fitness of successful and unsuccessful mutualists must exceed non mutualistts

101
Q

index of species abundance

A

species diversity

102
Q

richness

A

number of species in a community

103
Q

eveness

A

relative abundance and variation of species in a community. the numerical distribution of species in relation to others.

104
Q

shannon wiener

A

combines species richness with the number of individuals per species

105
Q

alpha

A

local diversity

106
Q

beta

A

change in diverstiy

107
Q

gamma

A

regional diversity

108
Q

shannon weiner index

A

index maximum when all species equally abundant

109
Q

factors affecting species diversity

A
  1. physical structure reflects abiotic factors - avaliablity of resources
    2.species interactions
  2. disturbance
110
Q

species diversity is higher in more complex environments

A

diversity increases with hetero

111
Q

community stratification

A

increased stratification allows for more species diversity

112
Q

species zonation

A
113
Q

disturbance

A

any relatively discrete event in time that disrupts ecosystem, community, or population structure and changes resources , substrate avaliablilty or the pjhysical enviornment

114
Q

connell

A

intermediate disturbsnce promote higher diversity

115
Q

succession

A

the directional change in the structure of a community through time. each sequence a sere

116
Q

succession

A

all in one location; change in time

117
Q

zonation

A

change over space/gradient

118
Q

Characteristics of population distributions
Components to understanding population distributions are:

A
  1. Geographic range: where in the world species lives
  2. Density: how many individuals per area
  3. Dispersion: spacing of individuals with area
  4. Dispersal: movement from one area to another
119
Q

Fundamental niche

A

Abiotic conditions which species can tolerate

120
Q

Realized niche

A

Abiotic & Biotic conditions species tolerates

121
Q

geographic range

A
  • Determined by the presence or absence of suitable habitat
  • Contains the range of ecological conditions needed for survival
  • ie. Where is the geographic distribution of the moose (Alces alces) in Alberta? Why?
    – What habitat components does the moose require?
  • Where is the Alberta distribution for the short horned lizard?
122
Q

Density

A

Density
Density = The number of individuals (n) in an area of habitat
– Reflects quality of the habitat
* Carrying capacity (K)
* Directly connected to ecological interactions
– i.e. Species are more common where there are more resources
* though may vary over time OR be related to other factors

123
Q

lowest r wins competition for a single resoiurce

A
124
Q

effect of competition

A

reduced population size, reduced realized niche space

125
Q

what is needed for species to coexist

A

habitat differences, food differeences, different activity times

126
Q

coexistence may occur if

A

resources are not limitng , resource partitioning

127
Q

why does predation matter

A

-affects distribution of prey species
-regulate prey and predator populations
–can force the structure of communities

128
Q

reality of predation

A

predation is not random, prey have refuges, predators carrying capacity unrelated to prey,generaation times differ between prey and predator, predators may be generalists

129
Q

lynx hare cycle conclusions

A

at high hair density numerical rwesponse oflynx and coyotes decrease= predation
. fear of predation leads to reduced birth rates =predsation

130
Q

fcators that stabilize predator prey interactions

A

-interference from outsdie the system (immigration)
-escape from predation, partial prey refuge

131
Q

mycorrhizae-

A

feed on plant roots. plants get better nutrients and better extraction of water

132
Q

how do we determine community structure

A

types of species, numbers of species, index of relative abundacne

133
Q

richness

A

of species]

134
Q

intermediate disturbance

A

allows for persistance of species that are good colonizers and species that are good competitors

135
Q

ecosystem

A

biotic community and abiotic factors

136
Q

ecosystems maintain themselves

A

by cycling energy and nutrients

137
Q

the low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels

A

makes decomposers generally more important

138
Q

primary production

A

fixation of energy by autotraophs. conversion of inorganic to organic

139
Q

gross primary production

A

total energy fixed by autotrophs

140
Q

net primary production

A

energy left over by autotrophs after meeting metabolic and energic needs

141
Q

terrestrial primary prdoctuivity

A

temperature and moisture

142
Q

areas near equator have the highest

A

productivity

143
Q

aquatic primary production

A

nutrient limited

144
Q

two laws of thermodynamics

A

1.total amount of energy is constant. not created or destoryed
2.heat energy will move from warm to cold. entropy will tend to increase in a closed system

145
Q

what limits energy transfer

A

respiration, growth and reproduction.
energy loss to heat

146
Q

importance of food webs

A

strength of interactions determine impact on entire foodweb

147
Q

guild

A

group of organisms that make their living in a similar way

148
Q

keystone species

A

-a species that has a disporportionate impact on the community relative to its abundance

149
Q

removal of keystone

A

loss of diverstiy,
cascading events may occur

150
Q

deep roots in fry environments

A
151
Q

water conservation of species

A
  • Behavioural
    – Restrict daily activities to cooler parts of the day
    – Burrows or utilize other cooler microclimates
    – Seasonal migration
  • Physiological
    – Raised body temperature (Camel 42C without sweating)
    – Reduce metabolism
    – More efficient large intestine reabsorbs water
  • Morphological
    – Enlarged nasal passages to condense water as it leaves via
    water vapour
    – skin water-proofing, fur, feathers
152
Q

Water and Salt Balance

A
  • If they have excess salts
    – Elimination in urine
    –Drink larger volume of water
    – If water is limiting
    → must concentrate urine
  • Kangaroo Rat (14 X more
    concentrated than human)
  • Special adapted kidney
    – Larger medulla region
    – Greater length of the loop of Henle
153
Q

Foraging theory

A
  • The rates at which organisms can take in energy and nutrients are limited
  • Even when presented with the opportunity for unlimited intake (unlimited supply of resources), an organisms’ actual rate of intake is limited by physical & physiological means
  • Limitations on consumption are common to all species
154
Q

Type 1:

A

Feeding rate increases linearly as food density increases — levels off at a maximum.
* consumers require little or no search and handling time.
* i.e. filter feeders

155
Q

Type 2:

A

Feeding rate rises in proportion to food density
– Feeding rate partially limited by search/handling time.
– At low food densities, limited by difficulty in finding food
– As prey increase, easier to find
– Handling time is constant but limits feeding at intermediate densities
Handling includes: cracking shells, seeds, chasing elusive prey and digesting prey

156
Q

type 3

A

: Feeding rate increases most rapidly at intermediate densities
(S-shaped).
– Prey protected at low densities
– Habitat protecting prey
– Predators will switch to different
prey at low densities
– Predators need to learn how to find,
catch and kill prey

157
Q

Optimal Foraging Theory

A

= Tendency of animals to harvest food efficiently
– selecting food sizes or food patches that supply maximum food intake for energy expended.
* Search for prey
* Handling time
* Tend to maximize rate of energy intake.
Expect natural selection to favour individuals that are more effective at acquiring limiting resources

158
Q

prfotiability

A

abundance, energy gained, handling time, cost of searching

159
Q

Marginal Value Theorem (Charnov 1976)

A

= Tendency of animals to harvest food efficiently
– selecting food sizes or food patches that supply maximum food intake for energy expended.
* Search for prey
* Handling time
* Tend to maximize rate of energy intake.
Expect natural selection to favour individuals that are more effective at acquiring limiting resources

160
Q
  • Predicts that animal should stay in patch longer if
A
  • time to reach new patch is high,
  • if general environment is low in food,
  • or if current patch is especially high in food.
161
Q

Sexual Dimorphism arises when:

A
  1. Different functions result in male/female
    differences.
    ie. Females produce larger gamete than males, results in:
    Larger sized females
  2. There is intense competition between males
    for females
    Results may include: head ornaments
  3. Females may choose males with the best
    display, colour, song, etc
    \
162
Q

key life history traits

A

body size, fecundity,parity,maturity,parental care, life expectancy

163
Q

fecundity

A

of offspring

164
Q

parity-

A

of reproduction times

165
Q

maturity

A

age of 1st reprod

166
Q

How to maximize fitness?

A
  1. How often should they breed?
    * Trade-off between fecundity and survival
  2. How many offspring should they produce in each event?
    * Trade-off between fecundity and survival
  3. When should they produce offspring?
    * Trade-off between breeding earlier and not living longer or breeding later
    and living longer (and growth)
167
Q

Semelparous

A

one main repro event

168
Q

Iteroparous

A

multiple repro events

169
Q

Fecundity trend

A

larger clutches with an increase in latitude.
* Conclusions:
– Increased litter sizes with latitude
– Reflects the largest # of offspring
parents can feed.
– Light increases with latitude in the
summer

170
Q

Altricial

A

heavy investment
* Young born helpless
* (ie. Blind and naked)

171
Q

precocial

A

light investment
* Partial development
* (ie. Move shortly after birth)

172
Q

grime

A

disturbance, abiotic stress, competition

173
Q

Plant Life Histories

A

*Ruderals (highly disturbed habitats)
* Grow rapidly and produce seeds quickly.
*Stress-Tolerant (high stress—no disturbance)
* Grow slowly—conserve resources.
*Competitive (low disturbance, low stress)
* Grow well, but eventually compete with others for resources.

174
Q

oppurtunistic graph

A

low survival ship, low fecundy, earlyage of repro mature

175
Q

equilibrium

A

high suvrvial, low fecudnity, late mature

176
Q

periodic

A

low survival, high fecundity, late matutre

177
Q

inclusive fitness

A

the survival and reproduction of an individual plus the survival and reproduction of individuals with whom it shares genes

178
Q

Grime’s classification of plant life histories focuses attention on

A

stress and disturbance

179
Q
A

bio 321 (4 decks)

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