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Biomedicine > 2. Skeletal System > Flashcards

2. Skeletal System Flashcards

1
Q

The anatomical position

A

Describes the body position from which directional terms always refer to:

  • Person stands erect, palms forward
  • Feet parallel, flat on the floor
  • Arms are at the sides of the body
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2
Q

Supine position

A

Describes the body lying face up

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3
Q

Prone position

A

Describes the body lying face down

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4
Q

Directional terms: Medial

A

Nearer to the midline

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5
Q

Directional terms: Lateral

A

Away from the midline

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6
Q

Directional terms: Bilateral

A

Both sides

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7
Q

Directional terms: Unilateral

A

One side

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8
Q

Directional terms: Ipsilateral

A

On the same side

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9
Q

Directional terms: Contralateral

A

On the opposite side

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10
Q

Directional terms: Proximal

A

Nearer to the trunk

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11
Q

Directional terms: Distal

A

Further from the trunk

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12
Q

Directional terms: Anterior (ventral)

A

Nearer the front

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13
Q

Directional terms: Posterior (dorsal)

A

Nearer the back

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14
Q

Directional terms: Superior

A

Towards the top

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15
Q

Directional terms: Inferior

A

Towards the bottom

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16
Q

Body planes

A
  • Coronal / frontal plane: Separating the body FRONT & BACK
  • Sagittal plane: Separating the body LEFT & RIGHT
  • Horizontal / transverse: Separating the body TOP & BOTTOM
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17
Q

How may bones in the human body and % of body weight

A

206 bones in the human body

Accounts for 18% of body weight

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18
Q

Functions of the human skeleton

A
  • Supports framework for the body
  • Forms boundaries (skull)
  • Attachment for muscles & tendons
  • Permits movement (joints)
  • Haematopoiesis - formation & development of blood cells from red bone marrow
  • Mineral homeostasis (mostly calcium & phosphate)
  • Triglyceride storage (yellow bone marrow)
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19
Q

Name the bone cells

A
  1. Osteogenic cells
  2. Osteoblasts
  3. Osteocytes
  4. Osteoclasts
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20
Q

Osteogenic cells

A

Bone stem cells

They are the only bone cells to undergo division (producing osteoblasts)

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21
Q

Osteoblasts

A

The bone-building cells

They synthesise and secrete collagen and other components of bony matrix

They are trapped and become osteocytes

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22
Q

Osteocytes

A

Mature bone cells

They maintain the daily metabolism of bone e.g. nutrient exchange

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23
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as 50 WBC’s (monocytes)

On the side facing the bone surface, cell membrane is folded into a ruffled boarder, where the cell releases powerful lysosomal enzymes & acids which digest bone matrix

Resorption is the breakdown of bone matrix

Osteoblasts & osteoclasts work together to remodel bone throughout life. Excess osteoclasts activity leads to bone density loss.

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24
Q

The two types of bone

A

Compact & spongy

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25
Q

Compact bone

A

80% of the skeleton is compact bone

Contains few spaces and is strong

Found beneath the periosteum of all bones and makes up the bulk of the diaphysis of long bones

A structural unit of compact bone is an ‘Osteon’ (aligned in the same lines as stress)

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26
Q

Four parts of an Osteon

A
  1. Haversian canal: contains blood vessels & nerves
  2. Lamellae: concentric rings of calcified extracellular matrix (minerals & collagen)
  3. Canaliculi: a mini system of interconnected canals that provide a route for nutrients/waste
  4. Lacunae: small spaces called lacunae with osteocytes
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27
Q

Spongy bone

A

Does not contain osteons, instead has trabeculae (irregular lattice of thin columns) that are arranged along line of stress

Microscopic spaces between trabeculae help make the bone lighter & can be filled with bone marrow

makes up the interior of short, flat, and irregularly-shaped bones & the ends of long bones

Spongy bone is always covered with compact bone

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28
Q

Bone matrix

A

An extracellular matrix that surrounds separated cells made up of collagen and minerals (calcium phosphate as well as magnesium, sulphate and potassium).

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29
Q

long bone two parts

A

Diaphysis (shaft)

Epiphyses (two heads)

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30
Q

Long bones

A

Bones that have a greater length than width

contain a diaphysis (shaft) & epiphyses (two heads)

Slightly curved for force distribution

Contain mostly compact bone in the diaphysis & spongy bone in the epiphysis

Examples include: femur, humerus & tibia

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31
Q

Epiphysis

A

Ends of long bones (proximal and distal) Contains spongy bones with red bone marrow surrounded by compact bone and hyaline cartilage

Epiphyses are separated from the diaphysis by the epiphysis growth plate (a layer of hyaline cartilage that allows the diaphysis to grow in length)

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32
Q

Diaphysis

A

The shaft of long bones

Contains mostly compact bone

Outer compact bone is covered by ‘periosteum’

Contains a central ‘medullary cavity’ that contains red/yellow bone marrow

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33
Q

All marrow starts off as what?

A

Red marrow

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34
Q

Periosteum

A

Surrounds the external surface of bone when it’s not covered by cartilage (joint surfaces)

The periosteum is a pain-sensitive, highly-vascular membrane that protects bone & serves as a attachment for ligaments/tendons

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35
Q

Where do the periosteal arteries enter

A

The periosteal arteries enter the diaphysis through many perforating canals, delivering oxygenated blood

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36
Q

The periosteum is a double layered membrane containing what?

A
  • A tough outer ‘fibrous layer’ that protects bone

- An inner ‘osteogenic layer’ that contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts, assisting in bone growth and repair

37
Q

Types of bone

A
  • Short bone (cubed shaped) - e.g. carpals, tarsals
  • Irregular bones (complex shapes) - e.g. vertebrae
  • Flat bones (two plates of compact bone) - e.g. skull, scapula
  • Sesamoid bone - e.g. patella
  • Long bone - e.g. femur, tibia
38
Q

Bone formation

A

Bone formation begins during foetal development, before continuing into childhood and then into adult life

39
Q

There are two ossification pathways used to produce bone; these are:

A
  1. Intramembranous ossification:
    - bone develops from connective tissue sheets
    - all flat bones (i.e. skull) and the clavicles develop this way
  2. Endochondral ossification
    - bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage
40
Q

Bone growth

A

Long bones elongate from the epiphyseal growth plate

In the early 20’s, the epiphyseal growth plate ossifies so that only a thin ‘epiphyseal line’ remains

If a bone fracture damages the epiphyseal plate during childhood, the bone may grow shorter (stunt growth)

Bones may also grow in thickness using osteoblasts in the periosteum

41
Q

Bone hormones

A

Many hormones affect bone growth and density by altering the ratio of osteoblast to osteoclast activity

  1. Promote ‘osteoblast’ activity (bone formation)
    - growth hormone & thyroid hormone
    - oestrogen & testosterone
    - calcitonin
  2. Promote ‘osteoclast’ activity (bone loss)
    - parathyroid hormone
    - cortisol & steroid medications
42
Q

Bone homeostasis

A

Bones are an important mineral reservoir, mostly calcium

Blood calcium levels have to be tightly controlled to ensure proper blood clotting, nerve & muscle function

If blood calcium levels are low (hypocalcaemia) osteoclasts will breakdown bone and release calcium into the blood

If calcium levels are high (hypercalcaemia) there will be an increase in osteoblast activity (take calcium back into the bone)

calcium exchange is regulated by the parathyroid glands & thyroid glands

43
Q

Parathyroid hormone

A

Increases blood calcium

Increases the activity of osteoclasts (resorption)

Stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb & retain calcium in the blood

Increases formation of calcitriol which promotes calcium uptake from food in the intestines

44
Q

Calcitonin

A

Calcitonin is a hormone that lowers blood calcium levels

Secreted by para-follicular cells of the thyroid gland

Inhibits osteoclasts & promotes osteoblast deposition of calcium in the bones

The overall result is increased bone formation & decreased blood calcium

45
Q

Vitamin D

A

Facilitates calcium absorption in the intestines and is directly involved in bone turnover

Vitamin D3 works closely with K2.

Vitamin D3 assists the absorption of calcium into the blood, whilst K2 activates a protein called ‘osteocalcin’ which controls utilisation of the calcium in the body (depositing into bones)

46
Q

What happens to vitamin D levels with age

A

decrease

47
Q

Low vitamin D factors

A
  • Low sun exposure
  • reduced dietary absorption
  • reduced ability to produce an active form of vitamin D through it’s processes in the skin, liver & kidneys
  • High alcohol intake
  • Magnesium deficient
48
Q

Exercise

A

Within limits, bone can become stronger in response to mechanical stress

Mechanical stress leads to increased mineral deposition & increased collagen production

Lack of stress on bones can cause bone mass loss of up to 1% per week

49
Q

The skeleton is divided into what section?

A

The axial & appendicular sections

50
Q

The axial skeleton

A

The ‘central skeleton’

Contains 80 bones

Serves to protect the body’s most vital organs

The axial skeleton contains the: skull, inner ear bones, hyoid, thoracic cage and vertebral column

51
Q

Skull

A

Forms the cranium (upper head), the face and encapsulates the brain

The skull bones are joined with fibrous joints (‘sutures’)

‘Sinuses’ are air-filled cavities in the skull that:

  • give resonance to the voice
  • lighten bones of face & cranium

Fontanelles

  • fibrous structures (soft spots) on a baby’s head joining the skull bones together. (ossify at 12-18 months)
  • allows the baby’s head through birth canal
52
Q

The vertebral column consists of 24 movable vertebrae, what are they?

A

Cervical (7) C1-C7

Thoracic (12) T1-T12

Lumbar (5) L1-L5

Sacrum & coccyx (fused bone)

53
Q

How are neighbouring vertebrae connected?

A

Intervertebral discs

54
Q

Vertebral column functions

A
  • Protection for spinal cord
  • Movement e.g. side bending
  • Support of skull
  • Forms axis of the trunk
55
Q

Intervertebral discs

A

Discs are shock-absorbing structures

23 discs are present in the spine

They bind vertebral bodies and separate individual vertebrae

Discs are most hydrated in the morning and aged 30-40

In 2 parts: Annalulus fibroses & nucleus pulposes

56
Q

What does the thoracic cage and ribs consist of?

A
  1. sternum

2. Ribs (12 pairs)

57
Q

Thoracic cage and ribs

A

The ribs attach to the sternum via costal cartilage

Ribs 11 & 12 are ‘floating ribs’

58
Q

Appendicular skeleton

A

The appendicular skeleton is the distal skeleton - consisting of the limbs

Consists of 126 bones

Functions: movement & organ protection

59
Q

What does the appendicular skeleton consist of

A
  • Shoulder girdle, arm and hand

- Pelvic girdle, leg and foot

60
Q

Shoulder girdle contains:

A
  • Clavicle (anteriorly)
  • Scapula (posteriorly)
  • Humerus (upper arm)
  • Ulna (medial forearm bone)
  • Radius (lateral elbow bone)
  • Carpals (wrist bone)
  • Metacarpals (bones in between carpals and digits/fingers)
  • Phalanges (fingers, divided into: proximal, intermediate and distal)
61
Q

Pelvic girdle contains:

A
  • Femur (the longest & strongest bone in the body)
  • Tibia (shin bone)
  • Fibular (bone in lateral lower leg)
  • Patella (sesamoid bone, anterior knee)
  • Tarsals (ankle bones)
  • Metatarsal bones (bones connecting middle section of foot)
  • Phalanges (toes)
62
Q

Muscles that attach to the bone and move joints are called what?

A

Skeletal muscles

63
Q

Skeletal muscles

A

Skeletal muscles attach to sites of the human skeleton (via tough fibrous structures called tendons)

Their subsequent contracture (shortening) generates movement

64
Q

How many joints are in the human body

A

187

65
Q

What are joints

A

Joints connect two bony structures and permit movement

66
Q

What are the three types of joints

A
  1. Fibrous
  2. Cartilaginous
  3. Synovial
67
Q

Explain fibrous joints

A

Bones are held tightly together, permitting limited movement (sutures in the skull)

68
Q

Explain Cartilaginous joints

A

Articulating bones tightly connected by cartilage; permit little to no movement (epiphyseal growth plate, intervertebral discs)

69
Q

Explain synovial joints

A

Synovial joints permit the most movement

Bones at the joints are covered by a layer of hyaline cartilage (articular cartilage) that reduces friction & acts as sock absorber

They contain synovial fluid, which consists mostly of hyaluronic acid & interstitial fluid filtered from the blood. (they have no direct blood supply)

The obtain nutrients from diffusion (joint movement is essential for this to happen)

e.g. ‘ball & socket’ (shoulder & hip) and ‘hinge’ (elbow & knee)

70
Q

What is bursae

A

Bursae are closed, fluid filled sac-like structures that are strategically located to reduce friction.

The inside of a bursae contains connective tissue fluid similar to synovial fluid

These ‘sacs’ cushion areas where bone would otherwise rub on muscle, tendons or skin

located between: skin & bone, tendons & bone, muscle & bone, ligament & bone

71
Q

Flexion (Angular movements)

A

Decrease in joint angle

72
Q

Extension (Angular movements)

A

Increase in joint angle

73
Q

Rotation (Angular movements)

A

Movement around it’s longitudinal axis. in the limbs it can be medial or lateral (away from the midline)

74
Q

Lateral flexion (Angular movements)

A

Movement of trunk away from midline

75
Q

Abduction (Angular movements)

A

Movement away from midline

76
Q

Adduction

A

Movement towards midline

77
Q

Circumduction (Angular movements)

A

Circular (flexion, abduction, extension, hyperextension, adduction in succession)

78
Q

Elevation (special movements)

A

Superior movement (up)

79
Q

Depression (special movements)

A

Inferior movement (down)

80
Q

Protraction (special movements)

A

Anterior movement (forward)

81
Q

Retraction (special movements)

A

Posterior movement (backward)

82
Q

Inversion (special movements)

A

Medial movement of sole (turn in)

83
Q

Eversion (special movements)

A

Lateral movement of sole (turn out)

84
Q

Dorsiflexion (special movements)

A

Bending foot up

85
Q

Plantar flexion (special movements)

A

Bending foot down

86
Q

Supination (special movements)

A

Movement of forearm to turn palm up

87
Q

Pronation (special movements)

A

Movement of forearm to turn palm posteriorly

88
Q

Opposition (special movements)

A

Movement of thumb across palm to touch fingertips

89
Q

X-rays

A

Used to visualise the skeletal system, lungs, heart and teeth

They pass through less dense matter (air, fat, muscle, and other tissues) & absorbed by denser materials (bones, tumours, lungs affected by severe pneumonia), appearing white

Blood clots can also be detected due to accumulation of RBC’s

Adverse effects: Cancer (DNA damage / genetic mutations) X-rays are mutagenic agents

Biomedicine (9 decks)

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