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NEW Language and Memory > 2: Reasoning, judgments and decision making > Flashcards

2: Reasoning, judgments and decision making Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two main domains of formal reasoning (logic)?

A
  1. Syllogisms.

2. Conditional reasoning.

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2
Q

What is the formula for syllogisms?

_________ + __________ = syllogism

A

Premise 1 + Premise 2 + Conclusion = syllogism

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3
Q

To be correct, a syllogism must be _____ (i.e. logical) and ___.

A

To be correct, a syllogism must be valid (i.e. logical) and true.

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4
Q

Label the formula for these statements and put them in order to create a syllogism:

Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Socrates is a man.
All men are mortal.

A

P1: All men are mortal. + P2: Socrates is a man. = C: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

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5
Q

To solve a syllogism, what two things must we evaluate?

A
  1. It’s validity.

2. The truth of its premises.

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6
Q

Evaluate the validity and truth of the premises to solve this syllogism:

P1: All apples are fruit. + P2: All fruit can swim. = C: Therefore, apples can swim.

A

The argument is valid, but it is not true because the second premise is false. We cannot accept this syllogism.

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7
Q

What are the two basic heuristics for solving syllogisms?

A
  1. Venn diagrams.

2. Replacing abstract entities with more concrete ones.

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8
Q

How do venn diagrams help solve syllogisms?

A

They show the relationships among sets of things.

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9
Q

How does replacing abstract entities with more concrete ones help solve syllogisms?

A

Makes an abstract syllogism more concrete.

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10
Q

When solving syllogisms using venn diagrams, always look for _____ _______.

A

When solving syllogisms using venn diagrams, always look for counter examples.

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11
Q

The tendency when reasoning to look for examples that confirm the truth of some argument is called:

A

Confirmation bias.

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12
Q

How may we avoid confirmation bias when evaluating the truth of syllogisms?

A

Using counter-examples to arguments.

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13
Q

Who first proposed that people’s performance solving syllogisms improves with training, but only if they are explicit taught to avoid confirmation bias by looking for counter examples?

A

Helsabeck (1975)

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14
Q

Evaluating the truth of a two-part statement that specifies the relationship between 2 assertions (cause and effect) is called:

A

conditional reasoning.

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15
Q

What is an antecedent?

A

A thing that existed before, or logically goes before another.

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16
Q

What is a consequent?

A

The following result or subsequent effect of something.

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17
Q

In conditional reasoning, statements take the general form: if _ then _.

_ = cause/antecedent
_ = effect/consequent
A

In conditional reasoning, statements take the general form: if P then Q.

P = cause/antecedent
Q = effect/consequent 
C = conclusion
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18
Q

What does ‘modus ponens’ mean?

A

Affirming the antecedent.

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19
Q

What does ‘modus tollens’ mean?

A

Denying the consequent.

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20
Q

“If it’s raining (P), then I’m carrying an umbrella (Q).”

P: it’s raining.
Q: I’m carrying an umbrella

This is called:

A

Affirming the antecedent.

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21
Q

“If it’s raining (P), then I’m carrying an umbrella (Q).”

~P: it’s not raining.
C: None is possible. I always carry my umbrella, irrespective of whether or not it’s raining.

This is called:

A

Denying the antecedent.

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22
Q

“If it’s raining (P), then I’m carrying an umbrella (Q).”

Q: I’m carrying an umbrella
C: None is possible. I always carry my umbrella, irrespective of whether or not it’s raining.

This is called:

A

Affirming the consequent.

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23
Q

“If it’s raining (P), then I’m carrying an umbrella (Q).”

~Q: I’m not carrying my umbrella.
C: It’s not raining.

This is called:

A

Denying the consequent.

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24
Q

Describe Rips and Markus (1977) experiment on human reasoning.

Procedure:

Results:

A

Procedure:

Gave conditional reasoning problems to college students.

Results:
Modus ponens problems = 100% correct.
Modus tollens problems = 60% correct.

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25
Q

In the 19_0’s’s, Peter Cathard _____ introduce a test of logical reasoning he called a _______ ____. This was used to test his theory of _________ ____.

A

In the 1960’s’s, Peter Cathard Wason introduce a test of logical reasoning he called a selection task. This was used to test his theory of confirmation bias.

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26
Q

Describe the procedure of Wason and Johnson-Laird (1972) experiment on human reasoning.

Procedure:

A

Procedure:

Developed variant of conditional reasoning task using cards. If a card has a vowel on one side, then it should have an even number on the other side.

[A] [D] [4] [7]

Participants were asked to turn over the minimal number of cards to validate the rule.

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27
Q

Describe the results of Wason and Johnson-Laird (1972) experiment on human reasoning.

[A] [D] [4] [7]

Results:

__% picked the A card, and then the 4 card.
__% picked the A card alone.
__% picked the A card, and the 7 card
__% picked another combination of cards.

A

[A] [D] [4] [7]

Results:

45% picked the A card, and then the 4 card.
35% picked the A card alone.
4% picked the A card, and the 7 card
9% picked another combination of cards.

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28
Q

Solve the puzzle:

If a card has a vowel on one side, then it should have an even number on the other side.

[A] [D] [4] [7]

Turn over the minimal number of cards to validate the rule.

A

Turn over A and 7.

29
Q

Describe the procedure of Johnson-Laird et al. (1982) experiment on human reasoning.

Procedure:

A

Procedure:

Used a modified version of the Wason task on college students. Participants were given 4 orange cards, with each having a drink on one side of the card and the age of the drinker on the another side.

[Beer] [Coke] [ 35 ] [ 19 ]

If a patron is drinking a beer, they must be 21 yrs+. Turn over the minimum number of cards (check the minimum number of ID’s) to validate the rule.

30
Q

Describe the results of Johnson-Laird et al. (1982) experiment on human reasoning.

[Beer] [Coke] [ 35 ] [ 19 ]

Results:
\_\_% picked the beer and 35 card.
\_\_% pick the beer card alone.
\_\_% pick the beer, 35, and 19 card.
\_\_% pick the beer and 19 card.
\_\_% pick another combination of cards.
A

[Beer] [Coke] [ 35 ] [ 19 ]

Results:
0% picked the beer and 35 card.
20% pick the beer card alone.
3% pick the beer, 35, and 19 card.
72% pick the beer and 19 card.
5% pick another combination of cards.
31
Q

Solve the puzzle:

[Beer] [Coke] [ 35 ] [ 19 ]

If a patron is drinking a beer, they must be 21 yrs+. Turn over the minimum number of cards (check the minimum number of ID’s) to validate the rule.

A

Turn over beer and 19, because then you wouldn’t have to check any ID’s for a coke.

32
Q

What is psychophysics?

A

How the perceived experience of intensity is related to its actual physical intensity.

33
Q

The minimal amount of physical change in intensity that can be reliably perceived is called the:

A

Just-Noticable Difference (JND).

34
Q

According to the theory of just-noticeable difference, when judging which of the two weights would be heavier, which comparison would be easier?

a. 2 lbs vs. 2.5 lbs.
b. 85 lbs vs. 86 lbs.

A

b. 85 lbs vs. 86 lbs.

35
Q

With all else being equal, the larger the physical difference between 2 stimuli, the easier they are to discriminate. This is called the:

A

Perceptual-Distance Effect (PDE)

36
Q

According to the theory of perceptual-distance effect, when judging which of the two weights would be heavier, which comparison would be easier?

a. 2 lbs vs. 5 lbs.
b. 2 lbs vs. 3 lbs.

A

a. 2 lbs vs. 5 lbs

37
Q

Describe Banks et al. (1976) experiment on cognitive analogs to the Perceptual-Distance Effect.

Procedure:

Results:

A

Procedure:

Subjects asked to make semantic devisions.
E.g. what number is larger: 2 vs. 3 or 2 vs. 7?

Results:

Observed a Symbolic-Distance Effect. Reaction times were quicker the greater the perceived distance between numbers.

38
Q

What is the Symbolic-Distance Effect?

A

Ordinal comparisons between items in memory are more rapid the greater the “distance” between those items.

39
Q

Describe Holyoak and Mah (1982) two-part experiment on semantic decisions.

Procedure:

(Part 1)
(Part 2)

Results:

A

Procedure:

(Part 1)
Subjects asked via drawing to indicate the relative distance between US cities.

(Part 2)
Subjects asked to indicate which of the yo-yos or balloons in the diagram were higher or lower.

Results:

Semantic-Congruity Effect.

40
Q

Define the Semantic-Congruity Effect

A

When adults are asked to compare pairs of items from a series, and their response time is quicker when the direction of the comparison coincides with the location of the stimuli in the series.

41
Q

A fixed set of procedures guaranteed to solve a problem,, (that may be easy or difficult) is called an:

A

algorithm.

42
Q

A ‘rule of thumb’ solution that is not guaranteed to solve a problem, but is quick and easy to use, and works most of the time is called a:

A

heuristic.

43
Q

General premises that lead to a specific conclusion is called:

A

Deductive reasoning.

44
Q

Specific examples that lead to a general conclusion is called:

A

Inductive reasoning.

45
Q

Syllogisms are an example of _________ reasoning.

A

Syllogisms are an example of deductive reasoning.

46
Q

‘Most crows are black, therefore, all crows are black.’

This is an example of _________ reasoning.

A

‘Most crows are black, therefore, all crows are black.’

This is an example of inductive reasoning.

47
Q

In the context of making decisions, heuristics are often used. Heuristics are based on ___________ reasoning.

A

In the context of making decisions, heuristics are often used. Heuristics are based on inductive reasoning.

48
Q

Who first documented the representativeness heuristic?

A

Kahneman and Tversky (1972)

49
Q

Judgments about things are often based on how much that things resembles our ___________.

A

Judgments about things are often based on how much that things resembles our expectation.

50
Q

Which of the following sequences of fair coin flips is more likely to happen?

a. T, T, T, T, T, T, T
b. T, H, H, T, H, T, H

A

Both are equally likely to happen. p = .5

51
Q

Which of the following sequences of fair coin flips do most people report is more likely to happen? Why?

a. T, T, T, T, T, T, T
b. T, H, H, T, H, T, H

A

Most people say b. because it resembles their expectation of what a sequence of fair coin flips should look like.

52
Q

In a group of 100 people, there are 70 lawyers and 30 engineers.

What is the chance that, if we pick one person from the group at random, the person will be an engineer?

A

p = .3

53
Q

In a group of 100 people, there are 70 lawyers and 30 engineers. We pick one person at random.

He is a 45-year old man, married, with four children. He is generally conservative, careful and ambitious. He shows no interest in political or social issues and spends most of his time on his many hobbies, which include home carpentry, saying and mathematical puzzles.

What is the chance that he is an engineer.

A

p = .3

54
Q

What are base rates?

A

The likelihood of an event based on its probability of occurrence (p-value).

55
Q

What is base-rate neglect (AKA base-rate fallacy)?

A

If presented with related base rate information (i.e. generic, general information) and specific information (information only pertaining to a certain case), the mind tends to ignore the former and focus on the latter.

56
Q

Linda is a 30-year old single woman, whom is outspoken and very bright. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations.

Which of the following statements is most likely to be true?

a. Linda is a bank teller.
b. Linda is a ban teller and active in the feminist movement.

A

a. Linda is a bank teller.

57
Q

Linda is a 30-year old single woman, whom is outspoken and very bright. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations.

When asked which of the following statements is most likely to be true, __% of people pick:

a. Linda is a bank teller.
b. Linda is a ban teller and active in the feminist movement.

Why?

A

When asked which of the following statements is most likely to be true, 85% of people pick:

b. Linda is a ban teller and active in the feminist movement.

Because people often fail to consider prior odds.

58
Q

A town is served by 2 hospitals. In the larger hospital, about 45 babies are born each day. In the smaller hospital, about 15 babies are born each day.

About 50% of all babies for are boys, however, the exact percentage varies day-to-day. For a period of a year, each hospital recorded days on which more than 60% of babies born were boys.

Which hospital recorded more such days?

a. larger hospital
b. smaller hospital
c. about the same

A

b. smaller hospital

59
Q

A town is served by 2 hospitals. In the larger hospital, about 45 babies are born each day. In the smaller hospital, about 15 babies are born each day.

About 50% of all babies for are boys, however, the exact percentage varies day-to-day. For a period of a year, each hospital recorded days on which more than 60% of babies born were boys.

When asked which hospital recorded more such days, respondents chose:

a. __% larger hospital
b. __% smaller hospital
c. __% about the same

Why?

A

When asked which hospital recorded more such days, respondents chose:

a. 22% larger hospital
b. 22% smaller hospital
c. 56% about the same

Because people often fail to consider sample size.

60
Q

Judgements about the frequency of things or events are influenced by how easy they are to remember. This is called the:

A

availability heuristic.

61
Q

Who first documented the availability heuristic?

A

Kahneman and Tversky (1973)

62
Q

Describe Kahneman and Tverksy (1973) experiment demonstrating the availability heuristic.

Procedure:

Results:

A

Procedure:

Asked subjects if where were more English words with the letter ‘r’ as the first or third letter in the word.

Results:
70% of subjects said more ‘r’ letters in the first letter of a word in English, even though there are actually 3X more letter ‘r’ in the third letter of every word.

63
Q

Judgments about the frequency of things are often biased by how familiar those things are. This is called:

A

familiarity bias.

64
Q

Describe part 1 of McKelvie (1997) two-part experiment demonstrating familiarity bias.

Part 1:

Procedure:

Results:

A

Procedure:

Subjects studied one of two lists of names:

  1. 26 famous names of men and women.
  2. 26 non-famous names of men and women.

Results:

Participants gives similar estimate for number of male and female names, contradicting hypothesis of bias towards names of own gender.

65
Q

Describe part 2 of McKelvie (1997) two-part experiment demonstrating familiarity bias.

Part 2:

Procedure:

Results:

A

Procedure:

Subjects studied one of two lists of names:

  1. 26 names of famous men and non-famous women.
  2. 26 names of famous women and non-famous men.

Results:

Participants gave higher estimates for the gender that was famous.

66
Q

Describe the effect size (d) and conclusion of McKelvie (1997) two-part experiment demonstrating familiarity bias.

Effect size (d) = ____

Conclusion:

A

Effect size (d) = .78

Conclusion:

Confirmed Tversky and Kehnemann (1973) Fame Availability Effect and showed to me moderately large in size.

67
Q

What is the Fame Availability Effect?

A

The effects of fame and gender on the estimated frequency of male and female names.

68
Q

When asked which method of travel is safer, most people will choose automobile over airplane, despite flying being 500 times safer. What is this type of bias and what is it based on?

A

Saliency/vividness judgment. Judgements about things or events can be biased by the vividness/noticeability of them.

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