2: Overview of the Scientific Method

Question 1

Hypothetico-deductive/Hypothetico-inferential Model

Answer 1

A cyclical process of theory development, including four stages:
1. Hypothesis Derivation: an observed phenomenon causes the development or use of a theory to make a hypothesis of what should happen if that theory is correct
2. Hypothesis Testing: hypothesis is tested
3. Theory Evaluation: evaluate the theory in light of results
4. Theory Construction/Revision

Question 2

Inductive Reasoning

Answer 2

Used to develop theories based on observations; helpful when there is no existing theory to inform a hypothesis.
- bottom/up reasoning– observation, pattern, tentative hypothesis, theory

Question 3

Abductive

Question 4

Explanatory Hypothesis

Answer 4

A tentative, testable, and falsifiable statement that explains a phenomenon.
-“immature theory”

Question 5

Generalizing Hypothesis

Answer 5

A statement that describes (generalizes) an observed pattern.
- “immature law”

Question 6

Hypothesis vs. Prediction

Answer 6

use syllogistic logic:
if a hypothesis is true and a method is used, then one can make a prediction (prediction follows hypothesis)

Question 7

Theory

Answer 7

A coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena; system of abstract concepts (constructs) and the relationships among them (propositions).
- can be both tested and untested

Question 8

Syllogism

Answer 8

A conclusion is drawn (whether validly or not) from two given or assumed propositions (premises), each of which shares a term with the conclusion, and shares a common or middle term not present in the conclusion (e.g., all dogs are animals; all animals have four legs; therefore all dogs have four legs ).

• IF theory/hypothesis is correct • AND we set up condition to test it • THEN we should see something that confirms it

Question 9

Basic vs. Applied Science

Answer 9

Basic (description, prediction, explaination) is to understand; applied (intervention) is to use understanding.

Question 10

Description

Answer 10

Systematically categorizing, defining, and identifying

Question 11

Common Sources of Research Inspiration

Answer 11

1. Informal Observation
2. Practical Problems
3. Previous Research

Question 11

Empirical Research Reports

Answer 11

describe one or more new empirical studies conducted by the authors

Question 11

Review Articles

Answer 11

summarize previously published research on a topic and usually present new ways to organize or explain the results

— can be theoretical (present theory) or a meta-analysis (provide statistical summary of previous results)

Question 12

Theoretical Article

Answer 12

a review article devoted primarily to presenting a new theory

Question 13

Meta-Analysis

Answer 13

a review article that provides a statistical summary of all of the previous results

Question 14

Double-Blind Peer Review

Answer 14

reviewers of a research article do not know the identity of the researcher(s) and vice versa

Question 15

Monograph

Answer 15

a coherent written presentation of a topic much like an extended review article written by a single author or a small group of authors

Question 16

Interestingness

Answer 16

How interesting the question is to people generally or the scientific community. Three things need to be considered:
1. Is the answer in doubt?
2. Does it fill a gap in research literature?
3. Does it have important practical implications?

Question 17

Feasibility

Answer 17

How likely is the research question going to be successfully answered depending on the amount of time, money, equipment and materials, technical knowledge and skill, and access to research participants there will be.

Question 18

Qualities of a Good Hypothesis

Answer 18

1. Testable using the methods of science
2. Falsifiable: possibility of gathering evidence to disconfirm it
3. Logical: informed by previous theories or observations and logical reasoning
4. Positive: asserts the existence of a relationship or effect (as opposed to the absence of it)

Question 19

Deductive Reasoning

Answer 19

Used to develop a specific hypothesis to predict an outcome based on an existing theory.
-top/down reasoning– theory, prediction, observation, conformation/rejection

Question 20

Operational Definition

Answer 20

A definition of the variable in terms of precisely how it is to be measured.
ie. making an abstract concept such as depression something that can be directly observed and measured

Question 21

Convenience Sampling

Answer 21

A common method of non-probability sampling in which the sample consists of individuals who happen to be easily available and willing to participate (such as introductory psychology students).
-might not be representative of the population, and therefore less appropriate to generalize

Question 21

Extraneous Variable

Answer 21

Any variable other than the dependent and independent variable.

Question 22

Confound

Answer 22

A specific type of extraneous variable that systematically varies along with the variables under investigation and therefore provides an alternative explanation for the results.
- must be absent in order to make a causal conclusion between dependant and independant variables

Question 23

Simple Extraneous Variable vs. Confound

Answer 23

A confound must vary systematically with the manipulated (independant) variable and thus be a competing explaination for the results.

Question 24

Non-Experimental Research

Answer 24

Researchers measure variables as they occur, rather than manipulating them.
- cannot be used to make causal conclusions (claim that one variable causes another)

Question 25

Internal Validity

Answer 25

Refers to the degree to which we can confidently infer a causal relationship between variables.
- when external validity is high, internal validity tends to be low & vise versa
- higher in laboratory studies than field studies, as the latter generates more potential extraneous variables

Question 26

External Validity

Answer 26

Refers to the degree to which we can generalize the findings to other circumstances or settings, like the real-world environment.
- when internal validity is high, external validity tends to be low & vise versa
- higher in feild studies

Question 27

Field Experiment

Answer 27

A type of field study where an independent variable is manipulated in a natural setting and extraneous variables are controlled as much as possible.
-if there is a high quality and level of control of extraneous variables, it can have both a high external and a high internal validity

Question 28

Descriptive Statistics

Answer 28

Used to (numerically) organize or summarize a set of data.
- Measures of central tendency (mean, mode, etc.)
- Measures of dispersion (range, standard dev., etc)
- Coorelation coefficients

Question 29

Standard Deviation and Variance

Answer 29

STDev: Measure of dispersion that measures the average distance of scores from the mean.

VAR: STDev squared

Question 30

Correlation Coefficient

Answer 30

Describes the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables (often measured by Pearson’s r).
- negative relationship (up to -1.00) indicate that as the value of one variable increases, that of the other decreases
- positive relationship (up to +1.00) indicates that as the value of one variable increases, the other also increases
- value of 0 indicates no relationship

Question 31

Inferential Statistics

Answer 31

A research method that allows researchers to draw conclusions or infer about a population based on data from a sample.
- help differentiate between effects that are attributable to random chance variability vs. a real relationship between variables

Question 32

Statistically Significant

Answer 32

An effect that is unlikely due to random chance and therefore likely represents a real effect in the population (okay to generalize from sample to population)
-results that have less than a 5% chance of being due to random error

Question 33

Type I Error

Answer 33

A false positive; a researcher concludes that their results are statistically significant when in reality there is no real effect in the population and the results are due to chance.
-rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true.

Question 34

Type II Error

Answer 34

A missed opportunity in which the researcher concludes that their results are not statistically significant when in reality there is a real effect in the population and they just missed detecting it.
- retaining the null hypothesis when it is false
- likely to occur when the threshold is set too low (less than 5%) or when the sample is too small

Question 35

Types of Research Questions

Answer 35

• description
• prediction
• explaination
  (basic; “understanding)

-intervention
(applied; “using understanding”)

Question 36

Prediction

Answer 36

Predict when/under what conditions

ie. Who is more likely to engage in SB?
What situations encourage sustainable behaviour? Alone/ group friends A/ group friends B?

Question 37

Explaination

Answer 37

Develop hypotheses/theory to explain behaviour

ie. Why are you more likely to compost if you watch someone do it first?

Question 38

Logical Fallacies

Answer 38

More than one hypothesis may explain a result; a false research hypothesis can produce a true prediction (just because it seems to explain something does not mean it is correct).

Question 39

Falsifiability

Answer 39

The possibility of showing a theory or hypothesis is wrong.
ie. aliens don’t exist (finding one would disprove it)
- need to be clear about what kind of evidence would reject it