2 - Media theories applied to youth (L2; Valkenburg & Oliver)

Question 1

Definition Media use (HC)

Answer 1

Intended or incidental (eg advertisement) use of media channels (eg telephone, email), devices (eg smartphone, game console), content/messages (eg games, narratives, news) or all types of platforms tools, apps (eg FB, Insta).

Question 2

Definition Media effects (HC)

Answer 2

The deliberate (eg feelgood movie) and non-deliberate (eg product placing in movie) short- and long term individual or collective (eg social norms in society) changes in cognitions, emotions, attitudes and behavior that results from media use.

Question 3

What was the Payne fund study? (HC)

Answer 3

The first study on media effects. Focused on:
- Content. What are children explosed to; with love, crime and sex what covered 75% of the presented movies
- Emotional impact. What does this do with children emotionally; with sex and love movies young children were not aroused, but older children did
- Behavioral impact. Does children act different after watching movies; they were heavily impacted
Now old and outdated.

Question 4

What is the magic bullet or hypodermic needle perspective? (HC)

Answer 4

The idea that media has a strong effect. The media is going to hit you no matter what, it has impact on everyone or when the needle is in you cant stop it.

Question 5

What was the Decatur Study about? (HC)

Answer 5

They saw media effects as complex mechanisms. There might be in two step flow in communication: e.g. media impacts some people, and those people spreading the media message to others.

Question 6

Definition Evergreen theories (HC)

Answer 6

Theories that are prominent (used a lot in research), top-cited theories, have held up fairly well over the past decades. We can still apply them today.

Question 7

Defintion Cultivation theory (HC)

Answer 7

The idea of exposure to media across time that has an influence on our perceptions about reality. E.g. what are the effects of violence on tv on children? How do you perceive the real world if you watch tv? How do you interpret tv?

Question 8

What are the levels in which the cultivation theory says media can impact you? (HC)

Answer 8

Lvl 1. How often do you think something happens? It will impact on how often you think something happens in real world. E.g. if you watch lots of tv with violence, you think that violence will appear a lot in real world.
Lvl 2. How do you perceive real life? E.g. if people watch a lot of violence on tv, they have a sense that the world is more mean.
Lvl 3. What happens in your behavior? E.g. if you watch a lot of tv with thin people, you might start dieting.

Question 9

Explain the process of mainstreaming in the cultivation theory? (HC)

Answer 9

• Blurring: you have already a perception of the world learned by for example parents, but you are blurring this perception
• Blending: on tv you see a blend of different opinions, but you blend this into one opinion
• Bending: if you are influencing peoples real life perceptions, they want to bend it their way eg advertisements

Question 10

What is the Agenda-setting theory (HC)

Answer 10

The role of the media is the ability to influence the salience of topics on the public agenda. Its developed with the news in the background of the head. Media can influence what topics you think are important and high onthe public agenda. Doesnt mean causality!

Question 11

What are the different levels of the agenda-setting theory? (HC)

Answer 11

Lvl 1. Object/topic: if its covered a lot in the news, you will think its important.
Lvl 2. Attributes: how the way it is presented in the news, it will contribute to how you think about this topic
Lvl 3. Network: if you think about one thing, can activate thinking about another thing. Concepts are related in your brain.

Question 12

The three levels of agenda-setting theory demonstrate that the news media can determine what we …

Answer 12

1 think
2 how we think about a given object
3 and how we associate different elements to make sense of the world

Question 13

How does the agenda-setting theory look nowadays? (HC)

Answer 13

Difference is the pace of publishing and spreading news is way higher and the role of the public. Research shows that people on X influence on how the news will be about (= intermedia agenda setting).

Question 14

What is the Spiral of silence? (HC)

Answer 14

An individuals’ willingness to express their opinion is a function of how they perceive public opinion. This is about how and why people do or do not express their opinion based on what they think what the public opinion is.

Question 15

How can media influence a public opinion within the spiral of silence theory? (HC)

Answer 15

Media influences what we see as a public opinion and they can do this through not showing both sides of a discussion.

Question 16

How does the spiral of silence theory look nowadays? (HC)

Answer 16

Difference today is that there is a variety of opinions (you can find people online who think the same as you do, you can choose what you want to be exposed to because of the algoritm), there is a selective exposure, options for expressing opinions.

Question 17

What is the Framing theory? (HC)

Answer 17

Is the way information is presented determines the media effect. Eg. het glas is halfvol of halfleeg, the use of words: bullying or teasing.

Question 18

How does the framing theory look nowadays? (HC)

Answer 18

Not changed much. Difference is platform specifics such as visuals, numbers of characters, determines what type of frame you can use.

Question 19

What is the Social comparison theory? (HC)

Answer 19

The idea is that we determine our self-worth by comparing with others. Upward and downward comparison.

Question 20

What is the Social cognitive/learning theory? (HC)

Answer 20

The idea is that humans learn to act the way they do and modeling, copying behaviors. Intentional (eg educational games) or unintentional (eg stereotypes on tv).

Question 21

What are contemporary models? (HC)

Answer 21

Theories whose developed in the last few years.

Question 22

Which aspects were taken into account with creating theories nowadays? (HC)

Answer 22

• Fragmented audience: doesnt reach everyone
• Echo chambers: they look for content they like
• Narrow information: because of the selective exposure and algorithm
• Differences on side of media and effect: e.g. the type of message/platform, micro vs macro, content specific vs diffuse-general, cognitive, emotional and behavioral level and changes or stabilization
• Individual differences: e.g. needs/motives, intensity response (some are more empathic) and traits/dispositions

Question 23

Vul in/aan (V&O). Over the past two decades, media consumption has become more …(1), leading to evolving media effects theories that move away from the idea of …

Answer 23

1: individualized
… a homogeneous mass audience.

Question 24

What is a media effects theory? (V&O)

Answer 24

A framework explaining how media influences individuals, groups, or societies by considering both media use and resulting changes in thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and behavior.

Question 25

What is a difference between mass communication and media effects theories? (V&O)

Answer 25

Mass communication is a broader area covering everything from creating and sharing media messages to the rules that govern them. Media effect theories are more tied to a particular way of studying things. Mainly use methods from quantitative research and recognize that people’s behavior can vary a lot.

Question 26

What are the six media effects theories that have been consistently top-cited over the past decades? (V&O)

Answer 26

1. Cultivation theory
2. Agenda setting theory
3. Diffusion of innovations theory
4. Uses and gratification theory
5. Social learning/social cognitive theory
6. Media system dependency theory

Question 27

What was meant by the “cognitive turn” in media effects theories during ’80s - ’90s? (V&O)

Answer 27

Some media theories lost prominence. The shift reflects an increased focus on internal congitive processes of media users, responding to the cognitive revolution in psychology. Newer theories emphasize the role of cognitive mental states as mediating variables.

Question 28

How do contemporary media effects theories differ from earlier ones? (V&O)

Answer 28

Being more comprehensive, recognizing the interaction between media and non-media factors, and emphasizing indirect effects.

Question 29

Which three core features distinguish contemporary media effects theories from earlier ones? (V&O)

Answer 29

Selectivity, transactionality and conditionality.

Question 30

What does the selectivity paradigm emphasize? (V&O)

Answer 30

Individuals choose media messages based on their needs, goals and beliefs.

Question 31

What are key theories within the selectivity paradigm? (V&O)

Answer 31

Uses and gratifications and selective exposure theory.

Question 32

Vul in (V&O). Selectivity is crucial in …(1) theories, where users actively shape their media consumption.

Answer 32

1: computer-mediated communication
= communication between people through computers

Question 33

Within Computer-mediated communication, where mass and interpersonal messages mix, there’s a concept called “process gratifications”. Explain this concept (V&O)

Answer 33

Effects develop while using media. People choose media based on needs and also situational, process-based media use.

Question 34

Definition Transactional theories (V&O)

Answer 34

Media use and outcomes is a two-way street. They focus on the user and say that a person’s characteristics lead to selective media use, which then affects the person, influencing their future media choices.

Question 35

How do transactional theories incorporate in computer-mediated communication nowadays? (V&O)

Answer 35

Old one-way communication is now more of a two-way interaction, changing how we think about media effects.

Question 36

What are key theories within the transactionality paradigm? (V&O)

Answer 36

Uses and gratifications and selective exposure theory.

Question 37

Definition conditionality paradigm (V&O)

Answer 37

Media effects are not the same for everyone and depend on individual, situational and social factors. Models in this paradigm say that things that affect what media you choose also affect how you think and feel about that media.

Question 38

Which newer theories accept that effects depend on different factors (conditionality paradigm; V&O)

Answer 38

Reinforcing spiral model and Communication mediation model.

Question 39

What are notable trends in theories about media effects? (V&O)

Answer 39

Narrative media entertainment, emotional processing effects, selectivity, conditionality and transactionality. Growing tendency to integrate mass communication, interpersonal communication and computer-mediated communication theories.

Question 40

What are three challenges and opportunities for future media effects research? (V&O)

Answer 40

1. Changing Media Use: As media evolves, we need new ways to understand how people use it. Traditional measures don’t capture the variety and multitasking of today’s media, so theories must adapt.
2. Better Ways to Study Emotions: New tools like neural analysis and big data help us understand how media affects emotions and thoughts. These methods go beyond asking people and provide richer insights.
3. Personal Communication Impact: In our personal media age, theories should look at how messages not only affect those who receive them but also impact the people who create the messages. Studying both sides is essential for a complete picture.

Question 41

Definition Two-step flow theory (V&O)

Answer 41

Argues that media effects are indirect rather than direct and established through the personal influence of opinion leaders.

Question 42

Definition Diffusion of Innovations theory (V&O)

Answer 42

Explains how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread among participants in a social system.

Question 43

Definition Knowledge gap theory (V&O)

Answer 43

Discusses how mass media can increase the gap in knowledge between those of higher and lower socioeconomic status.

Question 44

Definition Media system dependency theory (V&O)

Answer 44

Argues that the more a person depends on media to meet needs, the more important media will be in a person’s life, and the more effects media will have.

Question 45

Definition Priming theory (V&O)

Answer 45

Argues that media can activate cognitions and related affect/behaviors storied in human memory.

Question 46

Definition Third person effect (V&O)

Answer 46

Predicts that people tend to believe that media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves.

Question 47

Definition Elaboration likelihood model (V&O)

Answer 47

Explains how mediated stimuli are processed (via either the central or peripheral route), and how this processing influences attitude formation or change.

Question 48

Definition Limited capacity model (V&O)

Answer 48

Analyses how people’s limited capacity for information processing affects their memory of, and engagement with, mediated messages.