2. Interacting with the Environment

Question 1

Explain Broadbents and Anne Treisman’s models for selective attention.

Answer 1

Broadbent: he believed sensory input reaches a filtering buffer. At this buffer, attended channels continue on to the working memory, unattended channels are decayed in the selective buffer.

Treisman’s attentuation model describes an attentuation filter which decreases the signal intensity of unattended stimuli but does not eliminate it. This model accounts for the cocktail party effect.

Question 2

In visual attention, was is the binding problem?

Answer 2

When someone is distracted while focusing on more than one object, they may have trouble binding all features to the correct object. For example, the color of one feature may appear on another.

All features are processed simultaneously, we must bind it all together to get the full picture

Question 3

What is the resource model of attention?

Answer 3

The resource model of attention explains how we have a finite number of resources to use for task processing. If we have too many tasks we can run out of resources indicating that we cannot perform all these tasks at once.

Question 4

In terms of tasks, what three factors contribute to the resource model of attention?

Answer 4

1. task similarity: similar tasks = harder to do in parallel (listen and talk)
2. task difficulty: harder task = more resources
3. task practice: learned task = less resources

Question 5

what part of the brain is responsible for muscle memory?

Answer 5

the cerebellum

Question 6

Alan Baddeley’s model of attention described the working memory. Explain the phonological loop, visuospatial sketch-pad, episodic buffer, and central executive.

Answer 6

The working memory = short term memory.

phonological loop: auditory information is repeated in a loop
visuospatial sketch-pad: transient mental images to store visual information
episodic buffer: integrates all sensory inputs (above 2) with a sense of time. Will also contact long-term memory
central executive: overseas everything, divides and selects attention.

Question 7

Jean Piaget believed children’s cognitive development is based on their schemas (frameworks of how the world works). Explain assimilation and accommodation.

Answer 7

A new experience occurs (kid thinks monster under-bed, lights on = no monster seen)…

1. Assimilation: the kid conforms the new experience to an existing schema (monster must run from light)
2. Accommodation: the kid changes his schema or adds a new one to account for the new experience (monsters aren’t under the bed)

Question 8

Jean Piaget has 4 stages of cognitive development: explain each in order.
age, highlights, etc.

Answer 8

1. Sensorimotor stage (Age 2): child lives life through its senses. Here it learns of object permanence and has stranger anxiety.
2. Preoperational stage (Age 2-7): child learns that world can be described with symbols (language). Child is still egocentric, not understanding other perspective.
3. Concrete operational stage (8-11): child can now logically think and understand concrete ideas. here it understands the law of conservation.
4. Formal operational stage (12+): child can now think in the abstract and understands moral reasoning.

Question 9

When does a child learn object permanence and conservation?

Answer 9

object permanence - sensorimotor stage

conservation - concrete operational stage

Question 10

What are heuristics?

Answer 10

A heuristic is a mental short-cut that allows people to make decisions more quickly. They are influenced by biases.

Question 11

Explain confirmation bias.

Answer 11

Confirmation bias is the tendency to only seek and accept information that confirms our preconceived thinking and logic. We seek info that strengthens our current beliefs.

Question 12

What is fixation? What is functional fixedness?

Answer 12

fixation –> to only view a problem from one perspective and be un-able to change your view (i.e. you have fixated on a solution)

functional fixedness –> to view objects for only one intended purpose and no others (i.e. not recognizing that a wrench can also be used as a hammer)

Question 13

What is the availability heuristic?

Answer 13

A mental short cut based on readily available information. When faced with a problem, the availability heuristic seeks the most ready example of the solution / answer from our memory.

Question 14

What is the representativeness heuristic?

Answer 14

The representativeness heuristic creates generalizations of experiences and not necessarily specific examples (which would be the availability heuristic).

If we go to the mall 5 times and most times it smells bad, we might conclude all malls smell bad.

Question 15

Explain the difference between belief perseverance (belief bias) and confirmation bias.

Answer 15

confirmation bias - to only seek information that confirms what we already believe.

belief bias - to only accept information that aligns with our beliefs. In belief perseverance, we cling on to what we believe despite contrary evidence being provided.

the core difference is in confirmation we are seeking the info, in belief we are hearing new info unsolicited.

Question 16

What structure in the brain stem is responsible for controlling wakefulness?

Answer 16

The reticular activating system (RAS)

Question 17

Sleep: What is a polysomnography (PSG)?

Answer 17

A PSG is a collection of models to measure sleep including an EEG, EMG (muscle), and an EOG (eyes)

Question 18

Sleep: what waves do we produce when we are awake and alert? What about when we are awake but sleepy?

Answer 18

Awake and alert: we produce BETA waves

Awake and sleepy: we produce ALPHA waves

Question 19

sleep: Explain each stage of sleep by the EEG, EMG, and EOG?

Answer 19

stage 1 = theta waves, very small eye movement, moderate muscle movement
stage 2 = theta waves, K-complex, spindle-fibers. No eye movement, moderate muscle movement
stage 3 / 4 = delta waves, deepest sleep, no eye-movement, moderate muscle movement
REM-sleep: waves very similar to wakefull beta waves. rapid eye movements and NO muscle movement. Dreams occur hear.

These cycle every 90 minutes.

Question 20

why is REM sleep called paradoxical sleep?

Answer 20

because the eyes move rapidly but the body is essentially paralyzed.

Question 21

Explain who needs how much sleep, infants, teens, adults?

Answer 21

Infants = primarily REM sleep. 16 hours +
teens = 10 hours
older people require LESS sleep.
60s = only 6 hours

Question 22

how does your body temperature change during sleep?

Answer 22

When you sleep, your HR and body temperature drop

Question 23

What is REM rebound?

Answer 23

REM sleep is very important. So if we miss REM sleep one night, we will have an increased portion of REM sleep the next night (REM rebound)

Question 24

Explain Freud’s manifest and latent content for dreaming.

Answer 24

Dreams = manifest content which are symbolic of underlying drives and wishes called latent content. Freud believed dreams help us reveal inner conflicts.

Question 25

What is activation-synthesis theory of dreaming?

Answer 25

This theory essentially states that dreams are a by-product of brain activity during REM sleep. To this sense, dreams are purposeless.

Some may say that dreams act as a template of consciousness.

Question 26

What is the difference between dyssomnias and parasomnias?

Answer 26

dyssomnias –> sleep disorders that affect the amount, timing, or quality of sleep
parasomnias –> sleep disorders that are characterized by abnormal behaviors during sleep

Question 27

Explain the three common dyssomnias.

Answer 27

1. Insomnia –> persistent inability to fall asleep
2. Narcolepsy –> sudden bursts of sleepiness during wakeful hours
3. Sleep apnea –> stop breathing during sleep intermittently

Question 28

Explain the two common parasomnias.

Answer 28

1. Somnambulism = sleep walking, usually occurs during stage 3 of sleep
2. night terrors = random episodes of sitting up and appearing terrified but having no recollection of the event in the morning

Question 29

How do nightmares and night terrors differ?

Answer 29

nightmare = REM sleep, scary dream

night terror = stage 3 sleep, episode of terror, no memory of event

Question 30

Hypnotism: explain dissociation theory and social-influence theory.

Answer 30

hypnotism: someone guides your thoughts through relaxation and expressive imagery.

dissociation theory: severe form of divided consciousness. You go into autopilot while the hypnotist gets executive control.

social influence theory: people behave the way they think they are expected too. Unconscious faking (thus to some degree, not faking at all).

Question 31

What are depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens?

Answer 31

depressants = slow the nervous system = alcohol, barbiturates, opiates

stimulants = increase nervous system activity = caffeine, nicotine, cocaine

hallucinogens = distort perceptions even in the absence of sensory input. Weed and LSD.

Question 32

Drug addiction, explain psychological and physical dependence.

Answer 32

psychological dependence = use of a drug in response to some sort of painful or discomforting emotion / state. E.g. drink alcohol to get rid of anxiety

physical dependence = withdrawal. A user experiences a physical pain or discomfort that can only be alleviated by taking the drug

Question 33

t or f, addiction is biologically based.

Answer 33

True, addictive drugs mimic the reward pathways of our brain that release dopamine.

Question 34

What are the 6 universal emotions?

Answer 34

Happiness 
Sadness
Fear
Surprise 
Anger
Disgust

Question 35

What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?

Answer 35

The Yerkes-Dodson law posits that people perform best when they are moderately aroused. If they are not aroused enough (complacent) or they are too aroused (overwhelmed) performance falls.

Question 36

What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?

Answer 36

The James-Lange theory of emotion suggests that after an emotional stimulus, we first get a physiological response. The specific pattern of physiological arousal induces an emotion that we feel and assign in our brain

e.g.
dog chases you –> HR increases, pupils dilate, etc. –> brain says this is fear.

Question 37

What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?

Answer 37

Unlike the James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard suggests that after an emotional stimuli, we experience both the emotion and the physiological state simultaneously. Neither is influenced by the other.

dog chases you –> you feel fear at the same time (and independently from) as increased HR.

Question 38

What is the Schatchter-Singer theory of emotion?

Answer 38

The Schatchter-Singer theory suggests that upon emotional stimulus, we first get a physiological response. Our brain interprets this response relative to the environment and situation and then assigns an emotion.

unlike James-Lange where a specific physiological response causes emotion, Singer implies that the brain integrates the response with the environment to determine the emotion.

Question 39

t or f, the prefrontal cortex acts as an inhibitory controller of emotion, dampening the amygdala response.

Answer 39

True, our prefrontal cortex is logic and reason (i.e. not emotion)

Question 40

Who was Phineas Gage?

Answer 40

Phineas Gage was a railroad worker in the 1800s who got impaled by an iron rod through his prefrontal cortex. After, he was impulsive and lacked empathy. His personality changed.

Question 41

What are the three different types of stressors?

Answer 41

1. Catastrophes –> significant events like war or natural disasters. Nearly everyone appraises these events as impactful and stressful
2. significant live-changes –> these are large changes such as moving houses, divorce, getting fired.
3. Daily hassles –> everyday irritations (traffic, bills, etc)

Question 42

What is learned-helplessness?

Answer 42

After experiencing an uncontrollable event enough times, one believes that nothing they do will change the outcome of another similar event.

Learned helplessness is the perceived lack of control (despite control being possible)

Question 43

Stressful circumstances: the first acute response is the SNS. Longer term effects are controlled by cortisol from the adrenal medulla. Explain why cortisol switches the body from uses glucose for energy to fats instead.

Answer 43

By switching to fat catabolism, the blood glucose levels remain high. This is important as the brain can only use glucose for energy (not fats). Called glucose-sparing.

Question 44

Explain B.F. Skinner’s behaviorist model of language acquisition.

Answer 44

B.F. Skinner’s behaviorist model of language acquisition posits that language use is a form of behavior and can be learned through operant conditioning.

If a kid says a word that a parent has said, the parent rewards them (the kid also learns to imitate the words the parents say).

Question 45

Noam Chomsky disagreed with Skinner’s behaviorist model. What did he argue?

Answer 45

Noam Chomsky believed humans are born with an innate pre-wiring that enables humans to learn language with little exposure. This innate ability was called the universal grammar.

This implies humans only need to be exposed to language and not actively taught it.

Question 46

What is the linguistic relativity hypothesis?

Answer 46

This explains that people who speak different languages perceive the world differently. This slightly challenged Chomsky’s universal grammar, which highlights human commonality.

This is also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

Question 47

What is the Broca’s and Wernicke’s area?

Answer 47

Broca's = speech production. 
Wernicke's  = language comprehension

Question 48

Explain Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia.

Answer 48

Brocas aphasia = lose the ability to speak. You know what you want to say, but are unable to say it.

Wernicke’s aphasia = you can form fluent speech, but its meaningless / unintelligible.