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PYB304 > 2. How does the brain work? > Flashcards

2. How does the brain work? Flashcards

1
Q

what is biopsychology

A

Biopsychology is the scientific and systematic study of the biology of overt behaviour and underlying internal processes – a teamwork effort!

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2
Q

what are the two main cells in the nervous system?

A

neurons and clial cells

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3
Q

neurons

A

specialised in reception, conduction and transmission of electrochemical signals and come in a great variety of shapes and sizes

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4
Q

glial cells

A

can help the quick transduction of information, enable inflammatory processes, and regulate blood flow and passage of chemicals from the blood into the brain; four different classes

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5
Q

cell membrane

A

the semipermeable membrane that encloses the neuron

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6
Q

dendrites

A

the short processes emanating from the cell body, which receive most of the synaptic contacts from other neurons

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7
Q

axon hillock

A

the cone-shaped region at the junction between the axon and the cell body

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8
Q

axon

A

the long, narrow process that projects from the cell body

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9
Q

cell body

A

the metabolic center of the neuron; also called the soma

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10
Q

myelin

A

the fatty insulation around many axons

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11
Q

nodes of ranvier

A

the gaps between sections of myelin

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12
Q

buttons

A

the buttonlike ending of the axon branches, which release chemicals into synapses

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13
Q

synapses

A

the gaps between adjacent neurons which chemical signals are transmitted

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14
Q

what are the elements of a neuron’s membrane?

A

channel protein
signal protein
lipid bilayer

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15
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

a system of folded membranes in the cell body; roughly portions (those ribosomes) play a role in the synthesis of proteins; smooth portions (those without ribosomes) play a role in the synthesis of fats

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16
Q

cytoplasm

A

the clear internal fluid of a cell

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17
Q

ribosomes

A

internal cellular structures on which proteins are synthesized; they are located on the endoplasmic reticulum

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18
Q

golgi comples

A

a connected system of membranes that packages molecules in vesicles

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19
Q

nucleus

A

the spherical DNA-containing structure of the cell body

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20
Q

Mitochondria

A

sites of aerobic (oxygen-consuming) energy release

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21
Q

microtutules

A

tubules responsible for rapid transportation of material throughout neurons

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22
Q

synaptic vesicles

A

spherical membrane packages that store neurotransmitter molecules ready for release near synapses

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23
Q

neurotransmitters

A

molecules that are released from active neurons and influence the activity of other cells

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24
Q

4 classes of neurons

A

unipolar neuron
bipolar neuron
multipolar neuron
multipolar interneuron

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25
Q

what does a unipolar neuron look like?

A

dendrites on either end of an axon with the cell body on the outside of the axon

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26
Q

what does a bipolar neuron look like?

A

dendrites on both ends of the axon with the cell body in the middle within the axon

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27
Q

what does a multipolar neuron look like?

A

the cell body is in the one of the dendrites and dendrites on its own at the other end of the axon

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28
Q

what mainly consist of cell bodies in the CNS?

A

nuclei

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29
Q

what mainly consist of cell bodies in the PNS?

A

ganglia

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30
Q

what mainly consist of axons in the CNS?

A

tracts

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31
Q

what mainly consist of axons in the PNS?

A

nerves

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32
Q

4 types of glial cells

A

oligodendrocytes
schwann cells
microclia
astrocytes

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33
Q

where are oligodendrocytes located?

A

in the CNS

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34
Q

where are schwann cells located?

A

in the CNS

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35
Q

what types of glia are the oligodendrocytes and schwann cells?

A

myelinating clia

36
Q

what does the microglia do?

A

cleaner/remover of rubbish

37
Q

what are astrocytes related to?

A

blood vessel and neurotransmission

38
Q

what are astrocytes related to?

A

blood vessel and neurotransmission

39
Q

what mainly consist of cell bodies in the PNS?

A

ganglia

40
Q

what mainly consist of axons in the CNS?

A

tracts

41
Q

what mainly consist of axons in the PNS?

A

nerves

42
Q

4 types of glial cells

A

oligodendrocytes
schwann cells
microclia
astrocytes

43
Q

where are oligodendrocytes located?

A

in the CNS

44
Q

where are schwann cells located?

A

in the CNS

45
Q

what types of glia are the oligodendrocytes and schwann cells?

A

myelinating clia

46
Q

what does the microglia do?

A

cleaner/remover of rubbish

47
Q

what are astrocytes related to?

A

blood vessel and neurotransmission

48
Q

what is the difference between grey and white matter?

A

the myelination of the cells. Fatty substances around the axon has a white appearance and therefore white matter are highly myelinated axons. grey matter are neurons that are not myelinated or have very little myelination and thus it is a question of how much myelination there is

49
Q

how do neurons communicate?

A

neurons communicate through electro-chemical signals

50
Q

how are electrochemical signals created?

A

signals are generated by changing the resting membrane potential of a neuron. The signals are then sent through the neuron and across the synapse to the next neuron

51
Q

what is the voltage of resting membrane potential?

A

-70milli volts

52
Q

ions

A

particles of neural tissue that is salty

53
Q

what are the two ions required for membrane potential (studied in this unit)?

A

sodium (NA) and potassium (K)

54
Q

what is the resting state in membrane potential?

A

more NA outside the membrane than inside and more K inside the membrane than outside

55
Q

how is a membrane potential caused?

A

There is great pressure for Na ions to enter neuron due to opposing charges (they attract) and the need to move down their concentration gradient

56
Q

what prevents NA from moving onto the neuron?

A

the only option for these ions to enter the neuron is through sodium channels which are closed

57
Q

types of refractory periods

A

absolute refractory period

relative refractory period

58
Q

what does postsynaptic potential involve?

A

depolarisation and hyperpolarisation of the membrane

59
Q

depolarisation

A

excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) = increased likelihood of neuron firing

60
Q

hyperpolarisaiton

A

inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP) = decreased likelihood of neuron firing

61
Q

what are characteristics of postsynaptic potentials

A 
are very fast (instantaneous)
can last for variable lengths of time
don't travel far
decrease over time (decremental)
(they are sprinters)
62
Q

when does a neuron fire?

A

a neuron only fires if the balance between ISPS and ESPS at the axon initial segment is enough to depolarise the membrane to the threshold of excitation

63
Q

threshold of excitation

A

around -65mV and generations action potential

64
Q

action potential

A

lasts for 1 millisecond and massively reverses the resting potential of the membrane: from -70mV to +50mV.
APs are all or none

65
Q

what does the AP do on arrival at the terminal button?

A
  • APs release neurotransmitters that carry signals to other cells
  • The neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft and trigger EPSPs or IPSPs at the other neuron by binding to receptor sites at the postsynaptic membrane
  • There are many different kinds of synaptic connections and they are all important and have different functions (e.g. presynaptic manipulation, non-directed neurotransmitter release)
66
Q

absolute refractory period

A

short period of time during which no other AP can be elicited

67
Q

relative refractory period

A

follows the absolute refractory period during which an AP can be excited but only when higher levels of stimulation occur

68
Q

what is the importance of refractory periods?

A

APs travel only in one direction. The rate of neural firing is related to the intensity of stimulation (high levels of stimulation trigger high rate of firing: max. 1000 times/sec); low intensities low rates, and intermediate stimulation intermediate rates

69
Q

anticromic conduction

A

when APs can travel from the terminal end of the axon to the cell pody

70
Q

orthodromic condiction

A

when APs can travel from the cell body to the terminal buttons

71
Q

what are characteristics of action potentials?

A

non-decremental
move slower than ESPS and ISPS
endurance runners
APs travel passively along the membrane to the next voltage-activated sodium ion channel, triggers the process of eliciting an AP that then moves on passively again

72
Q

myelinated axons

A

sightly decrementally (passively) from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier
saltatory conduction
increased transmission speed
faster in larger-diameter axon and myelinated axon (e.g. motor neurons 60m/s in humans)

73
Q

Autoreceptors

A

Part of the presynaptic membrane. Bind to neurotransmitter: monitor levels of neurotransmitters in synapse and regulate release accordingly

74
Q

what are the two kinds of neurotransmitters

A

small neurotransmitters

neuropetides

75
Q

small neurotransmitters

A

synthesise in cytoplasm and packaged into synaptic vesicles by the golgi complex of the terminal buttons; vesicles stored close to the presynaptic membrane

76
Q

neuropetides

A

(large molecules) are syntehsised on ribosomes and packaged by the golgi complex of the cell body. They are tranported to the terminal buttons by microtubules

77
Q

exocytosis

A

release of neurotransmitters. small molecule neurotransmitters tend to be close to the presynaptic membrane in areas with Ca voltage activated channels
AP opens the channels and CA rushes in causing the vesicles to fuse with the membrane and releasing the neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft
small-molecule neurotransmitters released in pulses and neuropetides gradually

78
Q

neurotransmitter receptors

A

Neurotransmitter molecules bind to receptor sites of the postsynapticmembrane (neurotransmitter is ligand of its receptor – binds to it!)
Several receptor types per neurotransmitter (subtypes) allow for communication of different messages

79
Q

ionotropic receptors

A

Binding to ionotropic receptors usually opens ion channels hence generating a postsynaptic potential (EPSPs – opening of sodium channels, IPSPs – opening of potassium channels)

80
Q

metabotropic receptors

A

Binding to metabotropic receptors causes a subunit of the G protein to break away and - depending on the kind of G protein – may either bind to an ion channel (triggering EPSPs or IPSPs) or trigger synthesis of a so-called second messenger (second messenger can affect activities of neuron in many different ways)

81
Q

Autoreceptors

A

presynaptic membrane. Bind to neurotransmitter: monitor levels of neurotransmitters in synapse and regulate release accordingly

82
Q

what happens to neurotransmitters if they are left unsupervised?

A

they would clog communication channels

83
Q

reputake by transporters

A

clean up mechanism

most common; does what it says: takes neurotransmitters back into presynaptic buttons through transporters

84
Q

enzymatic degradation

A

clean up mechanism; breaks neurons apart

85
Q

recyling

A

all debris and vesicles are drawn back into neuron from presynaptic membrane

86
Q

gap junctions

A

another form of cell to cell communication
narrow spaces between cells bridged by protein channels called connexins. they allow passage of electrical signals and small molecules (e.g. second messenger molecules). They are a more rapid transmission than chemical synapses and occur mistly in cells of like kind (e.g. glial cells)

87
Q

tripartite synapse

A

related to gap junctions. synaptic transmission depends on communication between three cells - presynaptic neuron, postsynaptic neuron and astrocyte

PYB304 (5 decks)

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