2. Getting Organized & Classified Flashcards
Trait / Disposition
A building block of personality, traits are universal dimensions with individual differences.
Two Perspectives on Traits
- Traits as Internal Causal Properties (Internal traits cause people to act in particular ways)
- Traits as Purely Descriptive Summaries (Traits are purely descriptive summaries of attributes of persons, they make no assumptions about internality or causality)
The Act Frequency Formulation of Traits
Looks at implications of the descriptive summary trait perspective. Traits are viewed as categories of acts.
The Three Elements of The
Act Frequency Research Program
Act nomination, prototypicality judgement, and the recording of act performance
Act Frequency Research Program (AFRP)
Act Nomination
First step of AFRP. A procedure designed to identify which acts belong in which trait categories. Essentially, involves slotting behaviours/outward manifestations of traits into specific categories.
Eg. Categorizing someone striking up conversation with a stranger as an act of friendliness/extraversion
Act Frequency Research Program (AFRP)
Prototypicality Judgement
Second step of AFRP. Identifying which acts are most central to (prototypical of) each trait, as in, what acts are the best examples of a trait.
Eg. Impusively spending a large sum of money may be ranked as more impulsive than making a snap decision to go out with friends
Act Frequency Research Program (AFRP)
Recording of Act Performance
Third step of AFRP. Securing information on the performance of individuals in their daily lives.
List the three approaches to identifying the ‘most important’ traits
Lexical approach, statistical approach, theoretical approach
Lexical Approach to IDing Personality Traits
In which traits listed and defined in the dictionary form the basis of describing differences among people. Uses the lexical hypothesis that all important individual differences have become encoded within the natural language.
The Lexical Approach’s Two Criteria For Identifying Important Traits
Synonym Frequency: The more synonyms there are to describe an attribute, the more important that attribute is.
Cross-Cultural Universality: The more important a difference/attribute is, the more languages that will have a term for it.
Statistical Approach to IDing Personality Traits
Make sure to be able to define covariance
In which researchers use factor analysis to identify major personality traits.
The statistical approach starts with a large, diverse pool of personality items, and asks individuals to self-rate based on those items.
Then, researchers apply statistical methods in order to sort items by covariance.
Factor analysis is the primary statistical method: Helps us determine groups of items that “covary” or “go together.”
From the textbook: The goal is to identify dimensions/“coordinates” on the personality map.
Factor Analysis
Factor Analysis: Identifies groups of items that covary (go together) with each other, but not with other groups of items.
F.A. reveals clusters that have common properties, and can be useful in reducing large swathes of personality traits into a smaller and more useful set of underlying factors.
Factor Loadings
Indexes of how much of the variation in an item is “explained” by a factor (basically correlations).
Theoretical Approach to IDing Personality Traits
Starts with a theory, and the theory determines which variables or traits are important to study.
If the theory is very good, it will save us a lot of time spent looking at unhelpful variables.
But, depending on how much the theory contains gaps or biases, there can be many flaws/omissions/distortions as well.
Taxonomy
A classification scheme.
Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of Personality
Make sure to know the three broad traits
A model of personality, based on traits Eysenck believed were highly heritable/had a likely psychophysiological foundation.
Three traits:
E - Extraversion (introversion)
N - Neuroticism (emotional stability)
P - Psychoticism
His model was hierarchical, with narrow traits falling under broad traits. Narrow traits consist of habitual actions (patterns), which consist of specific actions.
Eysenck
Extraversion Narrow Traits + Psychophysiology
Traits: Sociable, active, lively, dominant, etc.
Psychophysiology: Extraverts experience more positive affect. Introverts have higher cortical and nervous system arousal to moderate-to-high levels of stimulation.
Neuroticism Narrow Traits + Psychophysiology (Eysenck)
Traits: Anxiety, depression, guilt, low-self-esteem, emotional
Psychophysiology: Associated with greater reactivity (physiological and psychological) to stress and negative stimuli.
High N Individuals: Stay angry longer, less likely to forgive, more vigilant to threats, etc.
Psychoticism Narrow Traits + Psychophysiology
Narrow Traits: Aggressive, cold, egocentric, antisocial (socially disruptive)… creative
Psychophysiology: Associated with higher testosterone, and lower monoamine oxidase
Controversial: Including creativity as a narrow trait of P
A lot of psychoticism narrow traits are spread out through The Big 5 traits
Hierarchical Structure of Eysenck’s System
- Super trait at the top of the hierarchy
- Narrower traits at the second level
- Habitual acts at the third level (eg. sociable at second level, socializing frequently at the third level)
-At the very lowest (4th) level are specific acts (eg. I raised my hand in class) - If enough specific acts are repeated frequently, they become habitual acts (go up to the third level)
The Two Key Biological Underpinnings of Eysenck’s Personality System
Heritability: Any personality dimension in Eysenck’s system must have reasonably high heritability
Identifiable physiological substrate: For any personality dimension in Eysenck’s system, one must be able to identify properties in the brain and CNS that can presumably be linked to/be a causal property of this dimension.
Physiological Substrate: Eg. Extraversion associated with CNS arousal/reactivity
Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory
List the two hypothesized biological systems in the brain
Also be sure to know the three systems of Gray’s theory
Jeffery Gray (1972, 1990)
Model of personality with two hypothesized biological systems in the brain:
1. Responsive to reward (those more sensitive to this were said to be impulsive)
2. Responsive to punishment (those more sensitive to this were said to be anxious)
Three systems (detailed in other flashcards): Behavioural activation system (BAS), Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS), Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS)
Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory
Behavioural Activation System (BAS)
Brain system responsive to reward, motivates approach behaviours: novelty-seeking, extraversion, etc.
Higher BAS = Higher positive emotion, novelty-seeking, extraversion, etc.
Not sure if this is testable, but some brain regions relevant to this system include: thalamus, cerebral cortex, striatum
Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory
Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS)
Brain system responsive to negative stimuli, mediates the fear response
Higher FFFS = motivates avoidance behaviours, fear-proneness, phobias
Not sure if this is testable, but some brain regions relevant to this system include: amygdala, anterior cingulate, hypothalamus
Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory
Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS)
Brain system involved in resolving goal conflicts between systems, characterized by anxiety and rumination in order to assess risk, high BIS = risk aversion, neuroticism
Not sure if this is testable, but some brain regions relevant to this system include: amygdala, posterior cingulate, hippocampus
Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex
Make sure to know the two resources that define social exchange
A circular representation of personality (not a complete taxonomy) focusing on interpersonal traits. There are two resources that define social exchange and are used to form this model of personality, with one dimension on the x-axis, love (corresponding to communion) and one on the y-axis, status (corresponding to agency).
This model provides a precise definition of interpersonal behaviour
Getting ahead versus getting along, so to speak.
Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex
High Love and Low Love
Traits
High love: Warm, agreeable, nurturing (nurturance)
Low love: Hostile, cold-hearted (hostility)
Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex
High Status and Low Status
Traits
High status: Assured, dominant
Low status: Unassured, submissive
Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex
High status, high love
Traits
Gregarious-extraverted
Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex
Low status, low love
Traits
Aloof-introverted
This model is not without its criticisms, as you could argue introverts are not always aloof
Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex
High status, low love
Traits
Arrogant-calculating
Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex
Low status, high love
Traits
Unassuming-ingenuous (‘innocent-seeming’)
The “Big Two” - Relevant to Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex
Agency
Competence, assertiveness; refers to existence of one as an individual, to “getting ahead,” goal-pursuit.
The “Big Two” - Relevant to Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex
Communion
Warmth, morality; refers to participation of an
individual in a larger community, related to “getting along” and forming bonds
Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex
Adjacency
How close are traits to each other in circumplex
Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex
Bipolarity
When traits are at opposite sides of the circle/are negatively correlated with one another
Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex
Orthogonality
Traits that are perpendicular (at right angles) to each other on the model. In essence, the traits are uncorrelated/entirely unrelated to one another. This allows one to specify with precision the different ways in which traits are expressed in actual behaviour.
The Five-Factor Model (“Big Five”)
Define the model, list all five traits
The leading personality taxonomy.
Consists of:
1. Extraversion
2. Neuroticism
3. Conscientiousness
4. Agreeableness
5. Openness to Experience
This model has been independently replicated in numerous studies, countries/cultures, languages, formats, in every decade, thus showing high validity and reliability. Broad “Big Five” traits also have narrow traits that provide nuance.
Big Five - Lewis Goldberg (1980)
Five-Factor Model - Paul Costa, Robert McCrae (1985)
Very similar models with one or two minor differences
The two main ways the Big Five are measured
- Based on self ratings of single-word trait adjectives (talkative, moody, etc.)
- Using sentence-length item format and asking people how much they relate (typically items from the NEO-PI-R: Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Personality Inventory Revised)
Big Five
Extraversion Narrow Traits
Be able to recall at least two
- Gregariousness
- Warmth
- Excitement Seeking - similar to Eysenck
- Positive Emotions
- Activity Level
- Assertiveness
Big Five
Neuroticism Narrow Traits
AKA Emotional Instability
Be able to recall at least two
- Prone to negative emotions - less likely to have things ‘roll off their back’
- Anxiety
- Depression
- Self-consciousness
- Vulnerability
- Anger/Hostility
- Impulsiveness
Neuroticism can increase people’s empathy for negative emotions, but does not correlate with empathy
Big Five
Conscientiousness Narrow Traits
Be able to recall at least two
- Competence
- Self-discipline
- Achievement Striving
- Order
- Dutifulness
- Deliberation (think things through)
Conscientiousness is not only related to organization, it’s complicated. It is also related to a sense of responsibility. Example: Activists, people committed to movements
Big Five
Agreeableness Narrow Traits
Be able to recall at least two
- Cooperative and polite rather than antagonistic and rude
- Trust in others (Believe others’ intentions are positive)
- Altruism
- Tender-mindedness
- Compliance (cooperative, avoid conflict)
- Modesty
- Straightforwardness (but not ‘rude’ honesty)
Closest thing we have to empathy in the Big Five. Can have some cons - agreeing to “too much” can be detrimental to a person.
Big Five
Openness to Experience Narrow Traits
Be able to recall at least two
Broad range of interests, variety over routine, imaginative, intellectually curious, open to new ways of doing things, like to experience different emotions, open minded for values
Traits:
* Fantasy
* Ideas
* Aesthetics
* Actions
* Feelings
* Values
Hierarchical Organization of Traits
Three Levels
Top of pyramid
1. Broad traits (factors)
2. Narrow traits (traits; facets)
3. Specific behaviours, states, and experiences
Bottom of pyramid
High Five Model
NOT TESTABLE
Socially desirable expressions of Big Five (not testable)
1. Erudition - High Openness
2. Peace - Low Neuroticism
3. Cheerfulness - High Extraversion
4. Honesty - High Agreeableness
5. Tenacity - High Conscientiousness
NOT TESTABLE
Combinations of Big Five Variables
Key to remember that traits examined in combinations are often significantly more insightful than traits examined in isolation. Eg. A person high in extraversion and neuroticism would have different predicted outcomes and be a very different person in general than one high in extraversion and low in neuroticism/high in emotional stability.
Big 5 Criticsm
- Fails to capturre the underlying causal processes that interest researchers (what makes someone neurotic and have neurotic thought patterns and behaviours)
- Response from Big Five proponents: It’s a framework for the phenotypic attributes of personality
HEXACO
Be sure to be able to name all six factors (overlap with Big 5)
A six factor structure of personality
1. Honesty-Humility
2. Emotionality (includes sentimentality and dependence)
3. E(X)traversion
4. Agreeableness (low anger, not quick to temper)
5. Conscientiousness
6. Opennness to Experience
HEXACO
Four facets of the honesty-humility factor
- Sincerity - Unwilling to lie or be manipulative in order to achieve a goal
- Fairness - Unwilling to cheat, steal, or take advantage of others
- Greed Avoidance - Lower concern with wealth/status
- Modesty - Do not see themselves as better than others/do not believe they deserve special treatment
Low honesty-humility is correlated with the Dark Triad and Tetrad.
HEXACO
Honesty-Humility Narrow Traits
Be able to recall at least two
Sincere, honest, faithful, loyal, modest, unassuming, fair-minded
HEXACO
Emotionality Narrow Traits
Be able to recall at least two
Emotional, oversensitive, sentimental, fearful, anxious, vulnerable
HEXACO
Agreeableness Narrow Traits
Be able to recall at least two
Patient, tolerant, peaceful, mild, agreeable, lenient, gentle
Versus ill-tempered, quarrelsome, stubborn, choleric. For HEXACO, remember low agreeableness = low anger, unlike the Big Five, where anger is slotted into Neuroticism.
HEXACO
Openness Narrow Traits
Be able to recall at least two
Intellectual, creative, unconventional, innovative, ironic
Dark Triad And Tetrad
List the four traits
Triad:
1. Machiavellianism
2. Narcissism
3. (Subclinical) Psychopathy
Tetrad:
4. Dispositional Sadism
Dark Triad/Tetrad
Machiavellianism
People high in Machiavellianism are: cunning, deceptive, exploitative, manipulative; this trait is associated with politicians and white collar crime
Dark Triad/Tetrad
Narcissism
The tendency towards grandiosity, entitlement, and superiority, with frequent and excessive attention-seeking behaviour.
Distinct from Narcissitic Personality Disorder (NPD)
Dark Triad/Tetrad
Subclinical Psychopathy
Tendency towards high impulsivity and thrill-seeking behaviour, along with low empathy and anxiety. Associated with selfish and antisocial (socially disruptive) behaviour.
Distinct from Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD)
Dark Tetrad
Dispositional Sadism
The tendency to gain enjoyment from hurting others (directly or vicariously, like through video games).
3 Traits
Light Triad
Don’t think this is testable
Kantianism - treating people as means to themselves, as opposed to means to an end
Humanism - respecting the dignity and value of every person
Faith in Humanity - Believing everyone is fundamentally good
Mostly in opposition to the dark triad
