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As Biology (Year 1) > 2- Cells > Flashcards

2- Cells Flashcards

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1
Q

What’s the structure of the nucleus

A

Nuclear envelope- double membrane
Nucleoplasm- jelly like
Chromosomes- protein bound linear DNA
Nucleolus- site of rRNA and ribosome production

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2
Q

What’s the function of the nucleus

A

Site of DNA replication and transcription
Contains genetic code

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3
Q

What’s the structure of endoplasmic reticulum

A

Rough and smooth both have folded membrane (cisternae)
Rough ER have ribosomes on cisternae

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4
Q

What’s the function of the smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

SER- synthesises and stores lipids and carbohydrates

RER- protein synthesis

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5
Q

What’s the structure of Golgi apparatus/vesicles

A

Folded membrane forming cisternae
Secretary vesicles pinch off from cisternae

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6
Q

What’s the function of Golgi apparatus/vesicles

A

Adds carbs to proteins forming glycoproteins
Produces secretory enzymes
Transports, modifies, stores lipids
Form lysosomes
Labels molecules with a destination
Finished products transported to cell surface in the vesicles, fuse with membrane, contents released

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7
Q

Structure of lysosomes

A

Bag of digestive enzymes

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8
Q

Function of lysosomes

A

Hydrolyse phagocytic cells
Autolysis, completely break down dead cells
Exocytosis, release enzymes outside of membrane to destroy material
Digests worn organelle for reuse of material

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9
Q

Structure of mitochondria

A

Double membrane
Inner membrane called cristae
Fluid centre called mitochondrial matrix
Loop of mitochondrial DNA

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10
Q

Function of mitochondria

A

Site of aerobic respiration and ATP production
DNA to code for enzymes needed for respiration

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11
Q

Structure of ribosomes

A

Small, two subunits of protein and rRNA
80s, larger found in eukaryotes
70s, smaller found in prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts

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12
Q

Function of ribosomes

A

Site of protein synthesis

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13
Q

Structure of vacuoles (plant cell)

A

Fluid surrounded by a single membrane called tonoplast

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14
Q

Function of vacuole (plants)

A

Turgid,support
Temporary store of sugars and amino acids
Pigments colour petals attracting pollinators

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15
Q

Structure of chloroplasts (plants)

A

Double membrane
Contains thylakoids (folded membranes with pigments)
Fluid filled stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis

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16
Q

Function of chloroplasts (plants)

A

Site of photosynthesis

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17
Q

Structure of a cell wall (plants and fungi)

A

Plants- microfibrils of a polymer of cellulose
Fungi- chitin, a polysaccharide containing nitrogen

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18
Q

Function of a cell wall

A

Structural strength to the cell

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19
Q

Structure of the cell surface/plasma membrane

A

Phospholipid bilayer, molecules like proteins carbs and cholesterol are embedded within and attached on the outside

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20
Q

Function of the cell surface/plasma membrane

A

Controls the entrance/exit of molecules

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21
Q

Structure of a cell wall (prokaryotes)

A

Complex, made of tough protein murein

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22
Q

Structure of mesosomes (prokaryotes)

A

Folds in the cell membrane

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23
Q

Function of mesosomes (prokaryotes)

A

Large surface area for the attachment of enzymes involved in respiration

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24
Q

Structure of genetic material (prokaryotes)

A

Single circular loop of DNA
No nuclear membrane

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25
Q

Structure of plasmids (prokaryotes)

A

Tiny circles of DNA carrying a few genes through cytoplasm

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26
Q

Structure of flagellum (prokaryotes)

A

Whip like structure

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27
Q

Function of flagellum (prokaryotes)

A

Allows bacteria to move

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28
Q

Structure of a slime capsule (prokaryotes)

A

Outside the cell wall

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29
Q

Function of slime capsule (prokaryotes)

A

A protein stopping cells from drying out
Sticks cells together
Protects cell against the action of a hosts digestive enzymes

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30
Q

What are viruses

A

Acellular, no cell membrane
Non living, can’t reproduce without a host cell

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31
Q

How do viruses reproduce

A

In a host cell

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32
Q

Structure of genetic material (virus)

A

DNA or RNA

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33
Q

Structure of a capsid (virus)

A

Protein structure

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34
Q

Structure of attachment proteins (viruses)

A

Allows attachment to a host cell

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35
Q

What are the principals of a light microscope

A

Focused a beam of light through a convex lens to enlarge image

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36
Q

What are the limitations of a light microscope

A

Low resolution, lack of focus
Lower magnification, small organelles not visible
Living specimens can be viewed

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37
Q

What are the principals of a transmission electron microscope (TEM)

A

Thin sample in a vacuum
Beam of electrons passed through
Some are absorbed creating darker spots
Shows internal cell structure

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38
Q

Limitations of of transmission electron microscopes (TEM)

A

Thin sample is needed
Dead specimen as contained in vacuum
2D image
Black and white image

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39
Q

Principals of a scanning electron microscope (SEM)

A

Electrons beamed onto a specimen
They scatter depending on contours
Formed 3D image

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40
Q

Limitations of a scanning electron microscope (SEM)

A

Vacuum so dead specimens only
Black and white image

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41
Q

What’s magnification

A

How many times larger an image is compared to the object

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42
Q

What’s resolution

A

The minimum distance between two objects, which still allows them to be distinguished

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43
Q

Equation for magnification

A

Magnification= size of image/ size of real object
(Size needs to be measure in the same units)

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44
Q

What are artefacts

A

Something viewed in an experiment but is due to the preparation, eg smudge on a slide

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45
Q

What’s cell fractionation

A

Cells are broken up to separate the different organelles within

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46
Q

What happens to tissue before fractionation

A

Cells placed in a solution which is
Cold, reduce enzyme activity which could break down organelles
Isotonic (same water potential), prevent shrinkage or bursting due to osmosis
Buffered, pH doesn’t fluctuate, could effect enzymes function or structure of organelles

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47
Q

What happens during homogenation

A

Cells are broken by a blender releasing organelles, large debris is removed through filtration

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48
Q

What’s ultracentrifugation

A

The homogenate is spun in a centrifuge, initially at a slow speed, heaviest organelles like nuclei are found at the bottom in an sediment, the fluid is removed to be spun again, process repeats

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49
Q

What is the order of organelles according to their densities

A

Nuclei (heaviest)
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosomes

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50
Q

What are the products of mitosis

A

Two identical daughter cells, same number of chromosomes as parent cell, except in a rare situation where a mutation occurs, controlled process

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51
Q

What are the products of meiosis

A

Four daughter cells, cells have half the number of chromosomes of parent cell

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52
Q

What happens in interphase

A

Cellular activity where DNA is replicated
DNA remains joined at the centromere

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53
Q

What happens during prophase

A

Chromosomes condense becoming visible
Nucleolus disappears, nuclear envelope breaks down, chromosomes free
Spindle fibres develop from centrioles in animal cells, still develop in plant cells, move to poles of cell

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54
Q

What happens during metaphase

A

Chromosomes are made up of chromatids
Microtubules are attached to centromere causing chromosomes to align across equator

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55
Q

What happens during anaphase

A

Centromere splits, chromosomes become apart
Chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell
Energy is released by mitochondria gathered around spindle fibres
If chemicals which destroy spindle fibres are used, chromosomes remain at equator

56
Q

What happens during telophase

A

Chromosomes disappear
Nuclear envelope and nucleolus reforms
Spindle disintegrates

57
Q

What happens in cytokinesis

A

Cytoplasm divides
Produces two new cells

58
Q

What type of cell division occurs in prokaryotic cells

A

Binary fission

59
Q

What does binary fission involve

A

Replication of circular DNA and of plasmids
Division of daughter cells cytoplasm to produce two daughter cells, each have a copy of circular DNA and a number of plasmid copies

60
Q

How do viruses replicate

A

Non living, no cell division
Inject nucleic acid, infect host cell, replicates the virus particles

61
Q

What happens when cell division is uncontrolled

A

Formation of tumours and cancers

62
Q

What are cancer treatments focused on

A

Controlling the rate of cell division

63
Q

Equation for calculating mitotic index

A

Mitotic index= number of cells in mitosis/ total number of cells

64
Q

What’s the difference in structure between the plasma membranes around the cell and membranes surrounding organelles

A

There is none

65
Q

Why is the name of the cell surface membrane different to plasma membranes

A

Cell surface refers to the membrane outside of a cell only

66
Q

What do phospholipids form in plasma membranes

A

Phospholipid bilayer

67
Q

What do the hydrophilic heads in the phospholipid bilayers do

A

Towards edges of the bilayer, attract water on both sides

68
Q

What do the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipid bilayers do

A

Centre of plasma membrane, repel water on both sides

69
Q

Functions of the phospholipid bilayer

A

Lipid soluble substances can enter/exit the cell
Prevent water soluble substances entering/exiting cell (maintains water potential)
Membrane is flexible and self sealing

70
Q

Where are proteins positioned in the plasma membrane

A

Interspersed

71
Q

What do proteins on the surface of the bilayer do

A

Mechanical support to membrane
Act as cell receptors for hormones along with glycolipids

72
Q

What proteins span the phospholipid bilayer

A

Protein channels
Carrier proteins

73
Q

What do protein channels do

A

Water filled tubes, water soluble ions diffuse across

74
Q

What do carrier proteins do

A

Bind to ions or molecules like glucose and amino acids, change their shape to move molecules across membrane

75
Q

Functions of proteins in plasma membranes

A

Structural support
Channels to transport water soluble substances across membrane
Carrier proteins allow active transport
Form cell surface receptors to identify cells
Help cells adhere together
Act as receptors for hormones

76
Q

Where is cholesterol found

A

Within the phospholipid bilayer

77
Q

Functions of cholesterol

A

Add strength to membranes
Reduce lateral movement of molecules, pulls together fatty acids
Membrane less fluid at high temps
Prevent leakage of water and ions , hydrophobic

78
Q

What’s a glycolipid made of

A

Carbohydrate covalently bonded to lipid
Carbohydrate portion extends into watery environment outside cell

79
Q

Functions of glycolipids

A

Recognition site, extended carb acts as receptor for specific chemicals
Maintain stability of membrane
Helps cells to attach, formation of tissues

80
Q

What are glycoproteins made of

A

Carbohydrate chains attached to extrinsic proteins on surface of plasma membrane

81
Q

Function of glycoproteins

A

Recognition sites, for hormones and neurotransmitters
Helps cells attach, form tissues
Allows cells to recognise each other eg lymphocytes can recognise an organisms own cells

82
Q

Why can substances not freely diffuse across the plasma membrane

A

Not soluble in lipids, can’t pass phospholipid bilayer
Molecules too large to pass through channels
Same charge as protein channels, repelled
Polar molecules have difficulty passing through non polar hydrophobic tails in phospholipid bilayer

83
Q

Why is the arrangement of molecules in the plasma membrane known as the fluid mosaic model

A

Fluid, phospholipid molecules move relative to each other, flexible
Mosaic, proteins embedded in phospholipid bilayer are different shapes and sizes

84
Q

Explain simple diffusion

A

Passive transport, energy transferred from motion of particles
The net movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until evenly distributed

85
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Allows movement of charged ions and polar molecules through transmembrane channels and transmembrane carriers
Passive process, no external input of ATP
Does occur at specific points on plasma membrane where protein channels and carrier proteins are present

86
Q

How do protein channels work

A

Water filled hydrophilic channels, allow specific water soluble ions through

Ions bind with protein causing it to change shape allowing ions to pass through to other side
Only open if a specific ion is present

87
Q

How do carrier proteins work

A

If molecule is specific to protein present it binds to protein, change of shape, molecule released to inside of membrane

88
Q

What is osmosis

A

The movement of water from a high water potential to and area of low water potential through a selectively permeable membrane (plasma membrane)

89
Q

What’s water potential

A

Pressure created by water molecules under standard conditions of temp and pressure

90
Q

What happens to water potential when a solute is added and why

A

Lowers water potential, more concentrated
Negative value

91
Q

Explain the process of osmosis

A

Solute molecules and water molecules move due to their kinetic energy
The selectively permeable membrane only allows water molecules to pass
Water molecules diffuse through the membrane from a high water potential to a low water potential, going down a water potential gradient
When water potential on either side of the membrane is equal, dynamic equilibrium is established, no net movement of water

92
Q

What’s active transport

A

The movement of molecules from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration using ATP and carrier proteins

93
Q

Why is active transport different from passive transport

A

ATP is required
Substances go from a low to highs concentration gradient
Carrier protein molecules are involved
Selective process, only specific substances transported

94
Q

Explain the process of active transport

A

In plasma membrane carrier proteins bind to a molecule at its receptor site
Inside the cell, ATP binds to protein, hydrolysed into ADP and a phosphate molecule, protein molecule changes shape releasing molecules to other side of membrane
Phosphate molecule is released, protein reverts to original shape
Phosphate molecule recombined with ADP during respiration forming ATP

95
Q

How does increasing surface area affect the rate of movement across cell membranes

A

Increases rate
More surface area for the insertion of carrier proteins

96
Q

What does increasing the number of protein channels and carrier proteins do the rate of movement across cell membranes

A

Increases rate

97
Q

Explain cotransport of glucose and sodium ions in the ileum

A

Sodium ions are actively transported from the epithelial cell into the blood, reduces conc of sodium in epithelial cell
Conc gradient between lumen of ileum and epithelial cell is created, sodium ions move through facilitated diffusion down a conc gradient into the epithelial cell
Sodium ions diffuse through a co transporter protein, so glucose or amino acids also attached, transported to epithelial cell against their conc gradient
Glucose moves down its conc gradient through facilitated diffusion from epithelial cell to blood

98
Q

What’s co transport

A

A type of active transport

99
Q

What allows a cell to be identified

A

Specific molecules on its surface, includes proteins due to their unique tertiary structure

100
Q

Protein molecules allow for the identification of what

A

Pathogens
Cells from other organisms of the same species
Abnormal body cells
Toxins

101
Q

What’s a non specific defence mechanism

A

Response is immediate and the same for all pathogens

102
Q

What are examples of non specific defences

A

Phagocytosis
Physical barrier eg skin

103
Q

What’s a specific defence mechanism

A

Response is slower and specific to each pathogen

104
Q

Examples of specific defence mechanisms

A

Cell mediated response, T lymphocytes
Humoral response, B lymphocytes

105
Q

Why are there lots of different lymphocytes in the body

A

Different lymphocytes recognise different shapes antigens

106
Q

What’s an antigen

A

Proteins located on the surface of cells
Generate immune response by lymphocytes

107
Q

What’s antigen variability

A

DNA mutates frequently, shape of antigen can change, previous immunity is no longer effective, memory cells only remembers the shape of old antigen

108
Q

What happens to lymphocytes that respond to the antigen of self cells

A

Destroyed before they can mature and differentiate

109
Q

What is the process of phagocytosis

A

Pathogens or dead/damaged/abnormal cells release chemicals acting as attractants
Receptors on a phagocytes cell surface membrane allows them to recognise and attach to chemicals on the surface of the pathogen
Pathogen is engulfed forming a vesicle called phagosome
Lysosomes move towards vesicle and fuse
Lysozymes (enzymes in the lysosome) destroy pathogen by hydrolosis
Soluble products are absorbed into the cytoplasm of phagocyte

110
Q

What’s the cellular response

A

Response of T-lymphocytes to a foreign antigen on body cells

111
Q

Is phagocytosis specific or non specific

A

Non specific

112
Q

What are T-lymphocytes

A

Made in bone marrow, nature in thymus gland
Associated with cell mediated immunity, involves body cells

113
Q

What are B-lymphocytes

A

Made and matured in bone marrow
Associated with humoral immunity, immunity involving antibodies

114
Q

What’s the role of antigen presenting cells in cellular response

A

Phagocytes can distinguish invader cells such as phagocytes which have engulfed and hydrolysed pathogens, body cells invaded by viruses, transplanted cells and cancer cells as they display foreign antigens on their cell surface membrane

115
Q

Response of T-lymphocytes against infection

A

Phagocytes engulf pathogen, phagocyte places antigen from pathogen on it’s cell surface membrane
Receptors on a specific helper T cell rapidly divide by mitosis forming clones
These differentiate into memory cells giving rapid response to future infections, stimulate phagocytosis, stimulate B cells to divide into plasma cells and secrete their antibody, activate cytotoxic T cells release protein perforin creating holes allowing substances in and out killing the cell, most effective against viruses

116
Q

Response of B-lymphocytes to a foreign antigen

A

B-cells have antibodies on their surface, antigens collide with a complimentary antibody, B-cell take in antigen by endocytosis presenting it on its cell surface
B-cell collides with helper T-cell allowing B-cell to undergo clonal selection
B-cells undergo mitosis, differentiates into plasma cells (makes antibodies) or memory B-cells (divide rapidly to fight reinfection)

117
Q

Definition of antibody

A

Proteins with specific binding sites

118
Q

Describe antibodies structure

A

Heavy chains- 2 long polypeptide chains
Light chains- 2 short polypeptide chains
Antigen antibody complex- when the antigen bind to the antibody
Variable region- depends on amino acid sequence
Constant region- rest of antibody

119
Q

How do antibodies lead to destruction of antigens

A

Agglutination- clump cells together, easy for phagocytes to locate them
Markers- stimulate phagocytes to engulf cells attached to it

120
Q

How do plasma cells provide a primary immune response

A

Secrete antibodies, destruction of antigen

121
Q

How are memory cells a secondary immune response

A

Rapidly divide producing more plasma/memory cells when encountering a complimentary antigen, long term immunity, increased quantity at a faster rate is secreted

122
Q

What’s passive immunity

A

Immunity through antibodies introduced into an individual
No contact with pathogen, immunity is immediate, no memory cells are formed so immunity doesn’t last
Eg antivenom

123
Q

What is active immunity

A

Stimulates the bodies antibody production
Contact with pathogen, takes time to develop, long lasting
Natural active immunity, individual infected with pathogen under normal circumstances, antibodies continue to be produced
Artificial active immunity, induces an immune response without having to suffer symptoms of disease eg vaccination

124
Q

How do vaccines provide protection for individuals

A

Introduce antigens into the body, stimulates an immune response, memory cells are produced, remain in blood and can divide rapidly if infected in the future

125
Q

What’s herd immunity

A

Large proportion of population are vaccinated, difficult for pathogen to spread, unlikely for an at risk individual to come into contact with someone who is infected

126
Q

What’s the structure of HIV

A

Lipid envelope with attachment proteins inside
Inside cell is a capsid which includes RNA and enzymes (reverse transcriptase)

127
Q

How does HIV replicate

A

HIV enters bloodstream
Protein on HIV binds to CD4 protein found mainly on helper T-cells
The capsid fuses with the cell surface membrane allowing RNA and enzymes from HIV to enter helper T-cell
HIV reverse transcriptase converts RNA to DNA, inserted into helper T-cells DNA
HIV DNA creates mRNA instructing for viral proteins to be made
mRNA exits through nuclear pore, uses helper T-cells protein synthesis mechanisms to make HIV particles
HIV particles break away, it’s cell surface membrane surrounds helper T-cell forming lipid envelope

128
Q

How does HIV cause symptoms of AIDS

A

HIV attacks helper T-cells by interfering with its function, without them the immune system can’t stimulate enough B-cells or cytotoxic T-cells, inadequate immune response, a person can be at an increased risk of infection

129
Q

Why are antibiotics ineffective for viral diseases

A

Antibiotics prevent bacteria from making cell walls
Viruses rely on host cells to carry out metabolic activity, lack their own metabolic pathways or structures, nothing for antibiotic to disrupt
Viruses have a protein coat not a murein coat so site wont allow antibiotics to work
Viruses embed in a host cells DNA

130
Q

What’s a monoclonal antibody

A

A single antibody which has been isolated and cloned

131
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies target cells by attaching therapeutic drugs to them (direct)

A

Monoclonal antibodies have specific tertiary structure, they are complimentary to the antigens on a cancer cell for example
Antibodies are given to patient which attach onto receptors on cancer cell
This blocks the chemical signals which stimulate uncontrolled growth

132
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies target cells by attaching therapeutic drugs to them (indirect)

A

Radioactive/cytotoxic drugs attached to monoclonal antibody
When the monoclonal antibody binds to the cancer cell it kills it

133
Q

Ethical issues associated with vaccines

A

Testing often uses animals
Side effects, benefits should outweigh risk
Everyone needs to be vaccinated for optimal protection, herd immunity
Expense, money could be spent on other research
Trial in a country where disease is common, unknown if successful

134
Q

Ethical issues witth monoclonal antibodies

A

Involves mice to produce tumor cells and monoclonal antibodies, induce disease in them, guidelines minimise suffering
Valuable treatment, patients need to be presented with risks and benefits
Testing raises concerns, volunteers need to be aware of risks and the current situation

135
Q

How do ELISA tests work

A

Apply a sample to a slide, wash the surface to remove any unattached antigens
Add monoclonal antibodies specific to the antigen, allow them to bind forming antigen antibody complexes, wash to remove any excess antibodies
Add a second antibody (had an enzyme attached to it) which is specific to the first antibody
Add the colourless complimentary substrate to slide, when enzyme acts on substrate a coloured product forms
The intensity of colour depends on the amount of antigen present

As Biology (Year 1) (5 decks)

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