2 Flashcards

Question

jihad

Answer 1

The concept Ofjihad, or struggle for the faith, inspired Muslim armies to conquer the lands of nonbelievers in Southwest Asia and across North Africa. Not all Muslims shared this aggressiveview of jihad. Instead, they considered jihad to be an inward struggle for faith.

Answer 2

Islam had an almost instant effect on the polytheistic nomadic herders of the Arabian Peninsula, uniting them into one faith, either by force or by choice. - From there Islamic armies, missionaries, and merchants rapidly spread the faith eastward and westward—so rapidly that one hundred years after Muhammad's death, Muslims and Christians fought for control of France at the Battle of Tours in 732 - By that date, Islam had replaced Christianity as the dominant culture in North Africa and in *****Spain.

Answer 3

- originally ruled from Damascus, Syria, but after clashing with the rival Abbasid caliphate (see below) it established a dynasty in Cordoba, Spain. - Muslim rule was supreme in Spain until its peak in the 1000s ,and remained an important presence there until the late 1400s - While the rest of western Europe worked to recover from the collapse of the Roman Empire, Spain was wealthy and stable under the Umayyad caliphate. - Arab technology and trade kept Spain out of the discord that the rest of western Europe experienced during the Middle Ages.

Answer 4

- centered in baghad (iraq) - Baghdad was one of the world's most cosmopolitan cities, with Arabs, Persians, Europeans,Turks, South Asians,Christians, Jews, Buddhists, and Muslims living there. - The Abbasids participated in a great deal of cultural borrowing. They adapted cultural traits from neighbors and made them their own. For example, many Persiansserved in the government, and Persianart, language, and literature were prominent among the Abbasids - turkish muslims held impt posts - Over time, the Abbasids lost power to local rulers and faced peasant revolts throughout the empire, and were ultimately destroyed by Mongols in mid 1200s

Answer 5

The Abbasids also employed Turkish soldiers— | Mamluks—in their army.

Answer 6

Historians often refer to the Abbasid era as the Islamic Golden Age, when scholars, poets, scientists, and artists from inside and outside the caliphate were welcomed into the region. Advances were made in astronomy, medicine, and mathematics (including algebra), - also Literature, like the above-mentioned 7007 Nights, also included poetry and philosophy.

Answer 7

- The political center Of Islam in South Asia was at Delhi. - The Delhi sultanates were a series Of Muslim Turk dynasties who settled in the northern portion of South Asia. - The Delhi sultanates fought invaders, especially the Mongols, and sometimes blended Islam with aspects of the Hindu culture found in the region. An example is the SIKH faith. - The greatest political contribution of the Delhi sultanates was blocking Mongol incursion deeper into South Asia.

Answer 8

In contrast to Muslim successes converting the peoples they encountered from North Africa to Central Asia, Muslims in South Asia never accounted for more than 25 percent Ofthe population.

Answer 9

- Christians sought to re-establish their faith in Southwest Asia, which they felt had been pushed aside by Muslims through jihad. - For example, the Byzantine Empire wanted to retake land it had lost to the Seljuk Turks and asked Christians in westem Europe for help. - TRADE: Europeanswere concerned that luxury goods from Asia (spices and silk) would be cut off if the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, came under Muslim control.

Answer 10

- Europeansgained only small territories along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean. These so-called Crusader states became centers of Christianity and trade with "the East." - Jerusalem became a city jointly occupied by Muslims, Jews,and Christians. - renaissance - Economic results for the Europeans were also good. Spices, foods, silk, cotton, and many other products entered western Europe as never before. The demand for these goods led to an increase in the number of towns along trade routes to the "East" and an increase in wealth in the "West," which led to more trade. Finding alternate and (hopefully) cheaper ways of trading these goods ultimately led to expeditions funded by European monarchs. - Increased contacts between western Europeans and Asians via trade also led to the introduction of unfamiliar diseasesinto the West

Answer 11

- didnt last long but emperor's policies did 1. Public works projects like the Grand Canal and the Great Wall were revived. 2. The Sui reinstituted the Confucian examination system for civil service and Buddhism increased in popularity during this period. - imm followed by tang

Answer 12

- From the Sui to the Tang dynasties, construction on the Creat Wall and the Confucian system of civil service exams continued. - Changes from the Sui to the Tang included the official government rejection of Buddhism and the restoration of Confucianism. In addition, government bureaucracy became more complex. - The Tang government also raised taxes to pay for its operations. First, they conducted a census to count the people and to find out where people lived, then the government imposed small taxes on cloth and grain.

Answer 13

n the mid-eighth century CE,the census counted about 50 million people—easily the HIGHEST population Ofany civilization in the world at that time.

Answer 14

Tang art, especially ceramics, were among the world's most beautiful. Glazed porcelain horses and other figures were delicate, colorful, and in great demand along the Silk Roads.

Answer 15

Transition from one dynasty to the next was fairly stable becauseOfthe people's faith in the mandate of heaven, a belief that heaven would support an emperor as long as he ruled well. If calamity struck and a dynasty fell, the Chinese trusted that a new and better dynasty was on the way.

Answer 16

1. Continuities from the Tang to the Song Dynasty included exports of manufactured goods via the Silk Roadsand by sea, continued development of urban centers, and the Confucian examination system. 2. Changes from Tang to Song included the development Of Neo-confucianism and the practice Of foot-binding among women - One result of the restoration of Confucian morals and its male-first views was the reduction in the status of women during the Song Dynasty. - Foot binding also made it very difficult for women to walk. Women were expected to remain at home and be little more than the property of their fathers or husbands.

Answer 17

- Neo-Confucianism adapted the traditional, orderly, patriarchal rules of its originator, with influences from Buddhism and Daoism. - philosophy changed into a popular salvationist faith beginning in the SONG Dynasty and was called Neo-C0nfucianism. It became a religion promising eternal reward.

Answer 18

1. The Tang Dynasty conquered Korea—at least, for a while— but found maintaining rule to be difficult, so they removed their military forces from Korea. In return, the Korean Silla dynasty made regular payments of money and goods— tribute—to China. 2. Impressed by the political and economic success of Tang China, Korean leaders did some cultural borrowing from China. - Korean scholars traveled to China to consult with Confucian scholars and returned with the latest Chinese books, technology, and ideas. - Chinese culture in the form of writing, religion (Buddhism), fashion, and architecture made their way into Korea. - The elite classes of Koreans adopted Confucianism.

Answer 19

- occurred largely voluntarily. 1. Japan intentionally chose to incorporate important aspects of Chinese civilization. The Chinese never conquered Japan, but the success of China under the Tang Dynasty motivated Japanese emperors to adopt elements of Chinese civilization. i. Chinese writing, bureaucracy, and belief systems were purposely borrowed. In fact, Japan is one of history's greatest cultural borrowers, a practice that continues today. 2. Buddhism became so popular in Japan that aristocrats feared the power of Buddhists in the government. 3. Confucianism was another popular belief system borrowed from China.

Answer 20

4. During the Heian Era in Japan (794—1185 CE),courtly life was an "ultracivilized" aristocracy. i. The details of this life are captured in Lady Murasaki's The Tale of Genji, considered to be the world's first novel.

Answer 21

5. Too much attention on the frivolous life at court led to a loss of power for the emperor and to the establishment of the Shogun, rule by a military strongman. i. The emperor remained, but with a greatly reduced role. ii. Japan became a feudal society, similar to western Europe at about the same time, with rich landowners overseeing poor farm workers and obtaining protections from a private army of knights, the Samurais.

Answer 22

1. During the Tang Dynasty, Chinese armies marched into Vietnam but saw only temporary success. i. The Vietnamese revolted early and often. ii. Women in Vietnam did not accept the Confucian system of male dominance.

Answer 23

a quicker-ripening form of rice. Once they had adopted this from Vietnam, this type of rice became an important part of the Chinese diet, and its population became—and remains—the most numerous in the world

Answer 24

pastoralists—nomadic peoples from Mongolia who herd sheep; yaks; goats; cattle; and, more importantly, horses.

Answer 25

early 1200s: led by genghis khan, the Mongols swept south into China, eventually reaching—and ending—the Song Dynasty. - After merciless military campaigns that brought them to power, the Mongols made Beijing their capital and ended the Confucian examination system. - The Mongols allowed foreigners, especially Arab Muslims, to administer the government. - Chinggis's grandson, Kublai Khan, established the Yuan Dynasty in China, which lasted until 1368, when rebellions drove the Mongols to their homeland on the steppes of Mongolia.

Answer 26

after brutal conquest, - The Mongols favored trade, and when they took over the regions along the Silk Roads, the routes were so free of bandits that historians still speak of a Pax Mongolica. - came at high price: - Cities that opposed the Mongols disappeared from the map. - Baghdad's leaders resisted Mongol attacks in 1258 and 200,000 people died. The Abbasid Empire died with them. - Central Asia lost as many as three-quarters of its population to Mongol destruction. - It is estimated that China's population declined by half during the Yuan Dynasty.

Answer 27

Through these conquests, the Mongol Empire expanded quickly—so quickly that one man could not oversee it all. i. The Mongol Empire divided into regional khanates after Chinggis died, and these khanates reached to eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Southwest Asia. - Over time, the people in all Mongol khanates rebelled and Mongol rule came to an end.

Answer 28

- The Russians called the Mongols The Golden Horde. - After their destructive invasion, the Mongols reached an agreement with local Russian leaders who collected tribute to send to their Mongol masters. - This tribute arrangement lasted 200 years until Ivan the Great, prince of Moscow, led a successful and lasting revolt against the Mongols in 1480.

Answer 29

in modernday | Israel by Mamluk warriors from Egypt.

Answer 30

- They controlled the largest empire the world has ever seen. - They allowed freedom of religion in the areas they conquered. - The Mughal Empire of South Asia took its name from the Mongols. - Increased trade because of the Pax Mongolica resulted in the rapid spread of the Black Death all across the khanates and into western Europe.

Answer 31

1. Southwest of the Sahara in the African grasslands called the Sahel, the Muslim kingdoms of Ghana, Songhay, and Mali exported salt, gold, and animal skins across the desert via camel caravans and connected into the Afro-Eurasia network of exchange. 2. These Sudanic states developed major trade and education centers like Timbuktu, D'jenne (Jenne), and Gao. 3. The borders of these civilizations were often difficult to define and sometimes overlapped.

Answer 32

1. Before the arrival of Islam into Africa, Christianity was the major religion of Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia. 2. Over time, Christians became a minority compared to Muslims in Egypt and Nubia, but Ethiopia remains largely Christian in the twenty-first century. 3. In the thirteenth century, King Lalibela of Ethiopia had a series of Christian churches carved out of rock to symbolize his kingdom's unshakable faith in that religion. 4. One of Ethiopia's major exports was coffee, which was especially valued in the Muslim world during this era.

Answer 33

- In the Americas, the Aztecs developed a unique system of agriculture—the chinampas field system to feed the large population of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan, in the middle of Lake Texcoco, in central Mexico. - The chinampas system called for large human-made, floating "islands" of crops to be constructed in the lake and the canals. Workers wove huge flat baskets and piled mud on top of them. They then planted crops, such as maize (American corn), in the soil. The plants were watered by their roots, which grew through the baskets into the water.

Answer 34

- Muslims in North Africa and Southwest Asia - The horse collar made it possible for a horse to pull a plow. - Rotating varieties of crops in a field increased crop yield because the soil's nutrients were less depleted. - The horseshoe protected the horses' hooves, so horses did not need to be replaced so often. - All of these developments, the Chinese and Muslim Arabs had learned centuries before the Europeans.

Answer 35

India also produced brass items, such as Buddhist religious | art. They also grew cotton and wove cotton cloth.

Answer 36

Persia manufactured ceramic goods for export as well, but also exported hand-made Persian rugs; items made of copper, glass, and brass; Islamic-themed art; and silk. They learned how to process silk from the Chinese.

Answer 37

- When invaders swept through declining empires, they often targeted the riches of the cities and killed much of the population. Many citizens fled to the countryside, which was often overlooked by the invaders. - Unfortunately for merchants and consumers, cities were linked by trade routes. When bandits made trade routes more dangerous, trade declined and hurt the cities' economies. - Finally, diseases that devastated the falling empires were particularly destructive in cities because higher population densities meant a quicker transfer of disease.

Answer 38

i. Safer trade routes led to more jobs in the cities, attracting still more people. iii. New food-growing methods, such as crop rotation (discussed above) meant more food was available to feed people in the cities. iv. The climate changed. There was a mini-lce Age in the Post-Classical Era, but global temperatures began to rise in the latter half of the era. This resulted in increased food production—good for trade and commerce. v. In western Europe, agricultural serfs started to gain their freedom after the catastrophe of the Black Death. Many

Answer 39

The Tang capital, Chang'an, with 2 million people, had a sectioned-off government zone, elaborate gardens, suburbs where city workers lived, and a busy commercial area.

Answer 40

Hangzhou, with more than 1.5 million people, was crossed by canals and bridges, had ten market centers that sold goods throughout Afro-Eurasia, in theaters, parks, restaurants, and museums. The Italian merchant/ explorer Marco Polo called Hangzhou the "best city in the world."

Answer 41

2. In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs called their capital of Tenochtitlän the "foundation of heaven." - This title marks a big contrast to the cities in China, where there was no religious significance tied to cities, but it is similar to the veneration given Christian cities like Rome, and Muslim cities like Mecca. The central area of the city of Tenochtitlån housed government buildings and religious structures. The great pyramid and two temples stood above all other buildings in Tenochtitlån. In addition, there were markets, gardens, and a zoo. As noted above, the most unusual thing about the Aztec capital was its position in the middle of a huge lake; still, it was able to maintain a population of about 150,000, larger than most European cities at the time.

Answer 42

- In Europe, one of the great cities was Venice, uniquely positioned on 11 7 islands in the northeast Italian peninsula. - Venice was a major trade hub linking Europe to Africa, Asia, and especially the Byzantine Empire. - Because of its strong economy, Venice became a powerful city-state in this era, with its own formidable military forces. City-states were still around by the mid 1500s, even though their heyday was way back in the Classical Era. - Venice exported Christian-themed paintings and statuary. - Venice had close political and economic ties to Constantinople, another formidable European city of the age.

Answer 43

In the Inca Empire in Andean South America, the mita system was similar to the kinds of coerced labor the Chinese and European landlords employed to build public works projects. In the next era, Europeans who conquered the Inca adapted the mita system to their own benefit.

Answer 44

Africa and eastern Europe were the chief sources for slaves. In fact, the word slave comes from the Slavic peoples of eastern Europe.

Answer 45

to work in agriculture because stable governments led to safer trade routes that, in turn, increased trade, including trade of agricultural products.

Answer 46

- Serfs differed from slaves in that they were not sold by individuals. They were "tied to the land," meaning that they generally stayed on the same land regardless of who the landowner was. - Like slaves, serfs received no pay, but they also did not pay taxes. - In Russia in eastern Europe, many free peasants actually volunteered to become serfs to avoid paying taxes like the free peasants.

Answer 47

Through most of history, one's status in society was usually determined at birth. In South Asia, the caste system determined your place in society. The social class you were born into was almost always the social class you died in. In the Byzantine and Ottoman empires, one could climb the social ladder through military service or increase one's chances of economic status by becoming a successful merchant.

Answer 48

2. In Tang and Song China, women's status deteriorated, and across Dar-Al Islam, traditional Muslim views of women generally continued. 3. There were exceptions. Mongol and Vietnamese women refused to accept the Chinese cultural expectation of footbinding. Some Vietnamese women led revolts against Chinese occupation of their lands. 4. Another exception to patriarchy in China was Empress Wu of the Tang Dynasty. She was an emperor of China early in the Post-Classical Era.

Answer 49

- Benefits to Europe from trade with Asia by the end of the previous era included not only spices, but also technology. Some European kings were quick to use the newly acquired methods in shipbuilding and navigation to expand their new kingdoms. - The compass, more accurate maps, the astrolabe (used to determine latitude), improved rudders and sails—all transferred from Asia—contributed to western Europe's ability to make long-distance sailing expeditions.

Answer 50

Motivated by competition from the Muslim faith, western European Christians—especially those of Portugal and Spain, who had recently completed a reconquista ("reconquering") of the Iberian peninsula from Muslim control—sought to spread their gospel to new areas. They targeted South and EastAsia, where conversion had thus far been limited. Expeditions always carried missionaries along.

Answer 51

- Incentive to expand the Roman Catholic faith came from Catholic nations such as Spain, Portugal, and France. - The Protestant Reformation of the early 1500s split the Western Christian church, but it also caused a renewed missionary vigor among the Catholic monarchs in western Europe who now saw not only Muslims as competitors for the world's souls, but also Protestants. - It became a matter of great importance for Catholic monarchs to evangelize the world before Protestants could.

Answer 52

- Like the nations in western Europe, Russiaalso had access to the new shipping technology and sent ships north into the Arctic Ocean seeking a route to EastAsia. Icy conditions, however, made that passage impossible. - At the same time, Russiawas expanding its LAND empire across Siberia and did not enter the Pacific until the 1600s. - European rivals closer to the Atlantic had geographic advantages when it came to exploring the Americas. - Other nations in central and eastern Europe had limited access to the sea and/or were not yet organized well enough to send expensive expeditions around the world.

Answer 53

- First, geography. Both Portugal and Spain have coasts that jutted farther into the Atlantic than other European nations. Portugal's proximity to Africa made southern exploration a logical target. - Second, the newly united nation-state of Spain had just completed a centuries-long campaign to restore the Iberian Peninsula to Christian control. Thus, Spain's leaders experienced a great deal of patriotic energy andwere willing to spend money to expand their economic, religious, and political influence beyond their borders. - Italy's position in the middle of the Mediterranean meant it was ideally situated to be at the center of exchanges between western Europe and the "East"—the ports of the eastern Mediterranean and their sought-after goods. Portugal and Spain wanted to bypass the Italian control of trade between East and West, so they searched for alternate routes to Asia, for instance, around Africa (Portugal) and west across the Atlantic (Spain).

Answer 54

Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator sent ship after ship down the western coast of Africa looking for a route to the Indies so that his nation could benefit from direct trade with South Asia. - In 1488, Portuguese ships reached and rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and for the next ten years, Portuguese and Arab merchants interacted in the Indian Ocean area. - In 1498, Vasco da Gama succeeded in making it to India and returned to Portugal with spices and other goods. The Portuguese finally established their link to the East.

Answer 55

Eventually the place where he did land—Cuba and the surrounding islands—were labeled the "West Indies" and its people were called "Indians"—that shows you how much Spain was aiming for the prize of South Asia's Spice Islands, the real Indies.

Answer 56

Europeans returned with few animals that had a global impact, but among plants, they brought back potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, American corn (maize), cocoa, and chili peppers as well as other peppers. i. The potato became popular in Europe—it stored well on ships and grew in a wide variety of soils and climates. ii. Maize became a staple in both Africa and China. iii. These American foods created unprecedented population growth wherever they were planted.

Answer 57

Europeans brought horses, pigs, chickens, cows, sugarcane, bananas, wheat, and rice, to name just a few. Effects on the environment were enormous. i. The introduction of horses to the Americas changed the cultures of almost every Native American group. ii. Sugarcane plantations throughout the Caribbean helped create rich European kingdoms, and resulted in the importation of slaves from Africa.

Answer 58

The greatest effect on the people of the Americas was the introduction of diseases that had not existed before the arrival of the Europeans. Smallpox, in particular, eradicated whole villages of native people, creating a demographic catastrophe that has not been equaled in all of history. It is estimated that approximately 90 percent of the population of the Americas died from these newly introduced diseases. ii. This depopulation created huge open spaces for Europeans to conquer and settle with little resistance.

Answer 59

the Spanish-held Canary Islands

Answer 60

- Portugal was first among European nations to enslave Africans along Africa's Atlantic coast, and haul them to their sugarcane plantations in Brazil. - Spain followed, buying Africans from merchants along the "Slave Coast" and transporting them in packed ships across the Atlantic (the Middle Passage) to the Caribbean to work producing sugar.

Answer 61

i. In their zeal to spread the holy word, Catholic clergy in both the Portuguese and Spanish territories held mass baptisms with little religious instruction. ii. This meant the traditions of the original faiths of the natives continued with Christian beliefs woven in.

Answer 62

- Gold from central Mexico went straight into the Spanish monarch's treasury, but it was silver from Peru that became the global metal of exchange. - Silver from the Americas was traded for Asian spices, silk, and all the other commodities Europeans had come to desire. - Japan was brought into this network because it, too, had silver mines. China and India were, of course, on the receiving end of most of the silver. - - For the first time, a global network of exchange was established.

Answer 63

For most of this era, the English, French, and Dutch colonies along the North Atlantic coast of North America were an afterthought. One historian called them a "colonial backwater." That's because they were not a big deal compared to the wealth of metals and sugar coming out of Latin America.

Answer 64

was fish. Cod was enormously popular among people on both sides of the Atlantic. Its presence off the coast of Massachusetts, near Cape Cod, made European monarchs give colonization there a try.

Answer 65

Triangle Trade is a term familiar to most AP World History students. Sugar, rum (which comes from fermented sugarcane), and cod were shipped to Europe and exchanged for silver, which was shipped to Africa and exchanged for slaves. Slaves were then sent to the Americas.

Answer 66

- Islam continued to spread as it had in the earlier era into sub-Saharan regions and into East and Southeast Asia, including parts of the Philippines. - Buddhism continued to move across Southeast Asia and into parts of Central Asia. - Hinduism continued to be the core religion of India. - People yet to be contacted by Buddhists, Christians, or Muslims continued to practice their indigenous faiths.

Answer 67

1. In the Indian Ocean region, trade among the traditional participants from EastAfrica, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia continued. 2. European merchants learned they could only join in when they cooperated with local rulers of port cities in this region because they were unable to dominate this long-lasting trade culture. 3. The volume of Atlantic World trade eventually surpassed that of the Indian Ocean network by the middle of this era. 4. Most people around the world remained farmers in this era. Many were subsistence farmers—that is, they grew enough for their family with a little left over to sell. 5. Other farmers grew a single crop for a landowner who exported the food—the beginnings of commercial farming. 6. Changes in crops that were grown occurred because of the influx of new foods from the Americas—corn in China, for example.

Answer 68

- The Manchus defeated the Ming leadership and established themselves as the new elite ruling class. - The Manchus were from the northeast corner of East Asia, namely, Manchuria. - Although they established a new dynasty—the Qing remained a minority ethnic group in the land they ruled. - The Qing adopted the Chinese language, Confucian philosophy, and the Chinese bureaucracy, and continued the mandate of heaven.

Answer 69

i. The new ruling class in Latin America was the Creole elites. ii. Settlers in the Americas who were born in Spain or Portugal were called the Peninsulares because they came from the Iberian Peninsula. They were at the top of Latin American society and government. iii. Next on the societal pyramid were the Creoles—those Europeans born in the Americas. iv. Over time, as the number of Peninsulares faded and the number of Creoles increased, the distinction between the two faded as well. v. Below the elites in Latin America were a wide variety of mixed-race peoples, called mestizos. Essentially, the more European "blood" a person had (or, conveniently, the whiter the skin), the higher they were on the Latin American social ladder. People with strong Amerindian or African features tended to be lower on the social ladder.

Answer 70

- 1500s. A Roman Catholic priest and scholar named Martin Luther began the Protestant Reformationchallenging the authority and lifestyle of some Catholic leaders, including the pope. He rejected many teachings of the Catholic tradition. - "Protestant" because he and his followers protested what they saw as abuses of power and privilege practiced by some in Catholic leadership. - "Reformation" because Luther believed his ideas would reform Christianity. For example, he rejected the Catholic teachings of the day such as the spiritual superiority of the clergy and the sale of "indulgences" to the faithful. Indulgences were documents proclaiming that sins were forgiven. - Luther's concept of the equality of all believers before God struck a chord with many in Europe, and his ideas became popular among political leaders. Henry VIII of England broke with the church in Rome and established the Anglican (English) Church because of Luther's ideas.

Answer 71

an official role in the church for women, as Catholicism did. Women held leadership positions within the Catholic Church serving as nuns in convents and schools.

Answer 72

a reformation of its own. Some of Luther's objections, such as the buying of indulgences, were addressed. i. The greatest global effect of the Catholic Reformation was the formation of the Jesuits. - The Jesuits were a group of priests with a strong missionary zeal. They called themselves the "Army of the Pope." - They were particularly effective in winning conversions in Latin America and in reversing gains made by Protestants in Poland.

Answer 73

not so much spiritual because relatively few Chinese accepted Christianity, but rather academic and scientific. - The Ming and Qing emperors appointed Jesuit diplomats from Europe to head the Bureau of Astronomy. - Jesuits brought mathematical and scientific information from Europe that impressed the Chinese—not an easy thing to do. - This marked a turning point in global leadership in technology from East to West in this era.

Answer 74

1. Since the Renaissance, European scientists had been accumulating and refining scientific and mathematical data garnered along trade routes through interaction with Muslim and Chinese scholars. i. The monarchs of European nations in 1400s - 1600s (such as Spain, Portugal, England, and France) sponsored men and women who conducted scientific research with the hope that new technology might give their country a competitive edge in world markets. > For example, after Columbus returned from the Americas, monarchs started funding experiments designed to determine longitude at sea. Determining which longitude a ship was on wasn't figured out until the mid-eighteenth century when British clock maker John Harrison claimed his government's prize for inventing an accurate sea chronometer that quickly determined longitude. 2. The Scientific Revolution's long-term effects on Western society was to reduce people's faith in divine explanations of life's mysteries. The Christian church still had millions of followers, but Westerners began to look to and depend more on science for answers to society's challenges. That tendency led to the Industrial Revolution.

Answer 75

1. As a result of increased requirements for goods to trade on the new global market, Russiaexpanded into Siberia and began to export valuable furs, especially to the newly rich European market. Peasants were involved in the trapping and processing of the furs and were also involved with farming large tracts of land owned by Russia's elite class. ii. The potato, imported from Peru, became a staple of the Russian diet. 2. In India, hand-woven cotton products like muslin—a delicate cotton fabric—were produced by peasant men and women for export throughout Asia and Europe. 3. In China, large numbers of peasants produced silk, which involved cultivating silk worms, extracting the silk, and weaving it. As in the Classical Era, these products were popular throughout Eurasia.

Answer 76

1. In Africa, the practice of slavery continued, and the exportation of slaves to the Americas by Europeans and north into the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean area by Muslim Arabs intensified because of the need for labor in the new global economy. Slaves sent to the Americas worked under harsh conditions on sugar plantations in the Caribbean region and in Brazil. ii. One indication of the harsh conditions on sugar plantations was that life expectancy was brief—three years on average, according to studies. 2. The massive loss of people out of Africa to slavery—mostly men—had a significant impact on African demography. Population declined and the once-patriarchal social structure was severely disrupted.

Answer 77

1. In the Americas, Europeans hired indentured servants when slaves were not readily available. - In the English colonies of North America, an indentured servant from England was "hired" by a sponsor in the colonies to work with no pay for about seven years. - An indentured servant might learn a trade as a craftsperson or as a domestic servant, but the most common duty was working as an agricultural laborer. - Slavery existed in these colonies, but the vast majority of African slaves were sent to the Caribbean or Brazil. - At the end of servitude, an indentured servant (assuming he or she had survived) was free of obligations to his or her master. - Thousands of people migrated from England to its colonies in North America as indentured servants.

Answer 78

Complaints of abuse by church and some government officials in Latin America led the crown in Spain to end these systems by the early 1700s

Answer 79

1. The Qing government was concerned with Russia's rising power to the west and a revival of the Mongols to the north. - In the late 1600s and early 1700s, the Qing military went on campaigns to add land in Central Asia to separate China from Russia. The Qing military also conducted campaigns in Mongolia to end the threat of any future invasions from the Mongols. - China was now one of the great land empires. 2. In general, the Qing did not force the peoples they conquered to adopt Chinese practices. Instead they allowed local rulers to keep ruling, as long as they obeyed Qing policies. 3. The Qing were also tolerant of local faiths and customs.

Answer 80

the movements of pastoral herders, significantly reducing the number of people who continued that way of life.

Answer 81

The Qing also allowed the trade routes along the Silk Roads to wither away, preferring ocean trade to camel caravans over land.

Answer 82

Russiawas the other great land empire of Asia. The Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Empire were significant in their respective regions, but neither could match the size and strength of the huge land empires of Russiaand China in this era.

Answer 83

1450 - 1750

Answer 84

The | British exported cotton and tea from its Indian colonies.