- Flashcards
Russia’s entry into world affairs began with
Ivan the Great,
who ran off the last of the Mongol rulers in the late fifteenth
century.
- From that point on, Russian leaders expanded their
territory through conquest. The largest area was to the east
across Siberia.
- 1500s: Ivan the Terrible began
a conquest of Siberia that continued for 100 years.
Like China, the Russian Empire
ended the era of the
nomadic people—it insisted on farming instead of
pastoralism.
Like the Chinese in Mongolia and Central Asia, and
the Spanish and Portuguese in Latin America, Russia
imposed requirements for local peasants to build roads
and perform other public works projects.
Like China—but unlike Latin America—Russia
generally
maintained a policy of religious toleration in the regions
they conquered.
peter and catherine the great
- czars
- late 1600s - late 1800s: added territories north of the
Black and Caspian seas. Russian migrants flooded
into these areas, greatly changing the cultural
makeup of each of these regions. - sought to make Russia a “modern” nation along
the lines of those in western Europe at the time. They were
moderately successful on some fronts. - Peter built a new capital city, St. Petersburg, modeled after
the capitals of western Europe. - Peter and Catherine modernized the military and—like
the Qing and other Chinese dynasties—invited foreign
experts to advise the royal court. - Catherine famously proclaimed Russiato be a European
nation. This settled (at least for Russian foreign policy)
the question of which direction the government would
make a priority, Asia or Europe. Russia’s empire occupied
both, and in fact, was mostly in Asia. - Catherine also invited foreigners to settle in Russia
and offered incentives for them to do so. Thousands
of immigrants, especially from central Europe, took
advantage of her offer. This policy was similar to the
United States’ granting tracts of free land in the Midwest
in the nineteenth century.
Even after decades of “westernization” by Peter and
Catherine, two major institutions carried over unchanged
into the nineteenth century in Russia:
:serfdom and absolute
monarchy.
i. Neither leader ended serfdom (although western Europe
had done so in the fifteenth century) nor did they
take steps to limit the czar’s authority by allowing a
constitution or by granting power to their parliament, as
England had done.
In western Europe, in contrast to the development of land
empires by Russiaand China,
sea empires were built by
Spain, England, France, and Holland
France, England, and Holland were also similar to Spain
and Portugal with regard to
their religious policies in the
Americas. They converted natives to Christianity, but were
generally less insistent on mass and immediate conversion
than the Iberian nations.
Differences in methods of governance in the Americas
developed aswell.
- Monarchs in Spain and Portugal were more directly
involved in governing their colonies than were monarchs
in England, France, and the Netherlands. - Viceroys were like assistant kings over their colonies and
reported to the king in many matters. The result was
a strict chain of command, with all kinds of matters,
important and trivial, being sent to the king for a
ruling. Given the huge distance between the Americas
and Europe, an answer to a local question could take
months. - The Dutch, French, and British colonies were run
differently from those in New Spain or Brazil, with
more decision-making on the local level and little
micromanagement from Europe.Historians say this style of governance is one
reason why the British American colonies along
the Atlantic coast gradually drew apart from the
crown in London. American colonists became used
to running their own affairs, fostering a spirit of
independence from the crown.
Absolute monarchies and a constitutional monarchy in
Europe
Other major powers in Europe besides Russia, France,
and Spain were under absolute monarchies during this
era. In an absolute monarchy, all of the government’s
power resides in one ruler. It was said that the king was
above the law; that is, the law did not necessarily apply
to the king. Each king had advisors and a parliament,
but all served at the monarch’s pleasure.
- England’s system was a major exception to this trend. In
1689, its parliament firmly established a constitutional
monarchy during the Glorious Revolution. Under that
system, the monarch operated under the law and in
tandem with the parliament.
England’s style of constitutional monarchy
eventually became the style of government all
European kings would accept.
ottoman empire
- The Ottoman Empire reached its peak of power during
this (DiG) era. The empire stretched across North Africa into
Southwest Asia and north into modern Turkey, reaching
almost to modern Austria.
i. The Ottomans defeated what was left of the Byzantine
Empire when they took Constantinople in 1453,
renamed it Istanbul, and continued westward into
eastern Europe.
ii. Geographically and culturally the Ottoman Empire was
a link among Europe, Africa, and Asia, encompassing
Christian, Jewish, and Muslim faiths.
devshirme
Although the Muslim leaders of the Ottoman empire did not require
Christians and Jews to convert, they did demand that nonMuslim
families in the Balkan region of southern Europe
hand over young boys to become soldiers for the Turkish
army.
- These “recruits” were known as Janissaries and their
‘recruitment” was the devshirme system.
- Janissaries were trained in Islam and, although they were
not Turks, they could rise to prominence in the empire
if they showed loyalty and ability—and many did.
Sometimes the hope of upward mobility was so strong
that Christian parents willingly handed their sons over
for Janissary duty.
Like Russia, the Ottoman Empire
struggled with
its political identity as a part-Asian, part-European empire.
Despite its history of battles with Christian Europe, it also
sought inclusion in the European diplomatic sphere.
The specter of Muslim conquest of all of Europe
engulfed
many western Christians, especially after the Ottomans
conquered Constantinople in 1453.
- This concern for the fate of Christianity was one of the
motivations for spreading the faith to the Americas after
Columbus’s discoveries.
- Another factor was the European fear that trade routes
through Constantinople would be cut off by the
Ottomans. Thus, the search for alternate routes to the
“East” began.
europeans in japan
- Europeans sailed to Japan in the mid-1500s and
took advantage of Japan’s feudal system and its lack of a
strong central government. - Portugal sent missionaries and merchants, and was
followed by Spain, the Netherlands (see below),
and England. They exchanged silver for Japanese
manufactured goods. - At first, the Japanese welcomed the Europeans because
they offered improved military and shipbuilding
technology, and trade. The Japanese were especially
interested in European guns. - Jesuit missionaries from Portugal had limited success
in converting Japanese to Christianity, but one
city, Nagasaki, was receptive to the faith and many
thousands became Christians.
tokugawa
- early 1600s, the Tokugawa family
reunited Japan through military conquests over its rivals - The leader of the government was the military
commander, known as the Shogun. - The Tokugawa Shogunate ruled Japan until the mid-1800s. It considered the influence of
outsiders on Japanese culture to be detrimental, so one
of the Shogun’s first decisions was to run the Europeans
out. - Christians were brutally persecuted and the faith faded
in Japan. - Only one Dutch ship was allowed to trade in one
Japanese port once a year. This policy of isolation from
Europe lasted until the mid-nineteenth century, when
American ships arrived in Edo (Tokyo) Bay to force open
Japan’s markets.
gunpowder empires
refer to the Ottoman, Tokugawa, and
Mughal empires
mughal india
- In the early sixteenth century, Muslims from Central
Asia, who claimed to be descendents of the Mongol
ruler Chinggis Khan, entered South Asia and established
the Mughal Empire. (“Mughal” comes from the word
“Mongol.” ) Rare in Indian history, most of South Asia was
united under a single government. - Its greatest ruler was Akbar. His greatest legacy was
extending religious toleration to the 75 percent of the
population that was Hindu. - In the beginning of the next era, c. 1750—c. 1900, a new
outside invader—the British—arrived and established rule
over South Asia, reducing Mughal leaders to ceremonial
duties.
mughals vs ottomans
Like the Ottomans, the Mughals were Muslim rulers of an
empire. Unlike the Ottomans, the Mughals’ faith was in
the minority in their own empire. One of the world’s most
iconic buildings, the Taj Mahal, was built by a Muslim in the
heart of Hindu territory.
netherlands
- A small European nation with a global empire, the
Netherlands’ greatest strength was in the art of the deal.
Like the Phoenicians from ancient times, they knew how to
get what they wanted, but didn’t produce much of their
own goods to exchange with others. - The Netherlands’ economic policies were pro-business,
encouraging bank loans, new commercial enterprises, and
shipping, with little government interference.
dutch going global
While the
Dutch were slow to “go global”—about one hundred years
after their Iberian rivals—once they did, they moved quickly.
i. The Dutch sent warships and soldiers under the flag
of the Dutch East India Company—also known as the
VOC—to take Portuguese outposts in the Indian Ocean
region.
ii. They came to dominate European trade with the “Spice
Islands” of present-day Indonesia. “Dutch” chocolate
and “java” came from this area.
aztec empire expansion
The Aztec Empire expanded through conquest and
demanded tribute from the vanquished people.
i. Little effort was made to assimilate the conquered
groups into the empire as long as tribute and trade
goods flowed into the Aztec treasury.
ii. Trade was an important part of Aztec society, with
precious metals, feathers, food, and people for sale in
large marketplaces.
aztec religion and state
Aztec rulers claimed to be descended from the gods, so
government and religion intertwined closely, not unlike in
ancient Egypt.
i. Human sacrifice was a vital part of the Aztec faith. The
belief was that the gods needed human blood to insure
that the sun rose every day.
ii. Slaves and captured enemy warriors were frequently
offered up in these blood sacrifices, creating the neverending
need for human subjects.
fall of aztecs
> By the early 1500s, the Aztecs faced internal
pressures due to unrest stirring among the conquered
people of the empire, who were increasingly angry about
the high degree of tribute that in turn caused them
economic hardship.
At the same time, outside pressure was forcefully applied
with the arrival of Spanish conquistadors and their superior
weapons and desire for gold. The Aztec empire crumbled
astonishingly fast.
largest empire of the Americas before the arrival of
the Europeans
governed by the Inca from their capital
Cuzco, in the Andes Mountains. Lasting for only about one hundred years, from mid1400s - mid1500s, the
Inca Empire stretched along most of the Pacific coast of
South America.
incans vs aztecs
- Like the Aztecs, the Inca expanded their empire through
military conquest and the tribute they demanded from
the people they defeated. They, too, had an emperor
who claimed to be descended from the gods. - Unlike the Aztecs, the Inca incorporated the vanquished
into the empire, requiring, for example, that the
defeated people learn the Incan language.
inca socialism
Under the Incan system, all land, food, and manufactured
products were owned by the government.
> The Inca people were required to contribute a portion of
their goods to the government for redistribution by the
large Inca bureaucracy.
quipu
One of the most interesting features of Incan civilization
was their record-keeping system on knotted strings, known
as quipu. The accounting system, kept by the government
bureaucracy, was based on the number and position of
knots and the color of the strings in the cords.
fall of incans
Like the Aztecs, the Inca were also facing internal strife when
the Spanish arrived in the 1530s.
- A civil war for control of the throne was raging and at
about the same time smallpox began to decimate the
population. These stresses made the empire susceptible
to outside invasion, and it came in the form of less than
200 well-armed conquistadors.
The greatest symbol of the transfer of power from the
Christians to the Muslims in Constantinople/lstanbul w
the Hagia Sophia, an Eastern Orthodox Christian Church, which was converted into a mosque. - blending of Greek Orthodox and Islamic architecture
causes of indusrev: policy
European governments—especially Britain—invested
part of the income from the New World in the form of monetary prizes
to individuals who invented more efficient ways to transport goods, grow crops, defeat enemies—anything
that might significantly contribute to the nation’s
increased share of the global mercantilist pie.
causes of indusrev: geography
- Britain had coal and iron, good soil, fast-moving rivers
to turn waterwheels that powered machines, and many
natural harbors to import raw materials from far-away
colonies. - Products manufactured from those raw materials were
exported back to millions of colonial consumers and
other markets around the globe. - Belgium, Germany, and France had similar favorable
geographic conditions and were quick to follow Britain’s
lead in developing industry.
causes of indusrev: economic n social mobility
- Especially in Britain, and to a lesser degree in the rest of
western Europe, people could move up the economic
and social ladder if they developed a money-making
invention. This incentive spurred Britain to become “a
nation of tinkerers,” as one observer put it. - Banks loaned money to inventors in whom they had
faith. As noted above, European governments offered
prizes for inventions that they considered helpful to their
global economic and political goals. These conditions
did not exist outside Europe at the beginning of this era.
causes of indusrev: workforce
- Britain had a large number of people skilled in working
with metal tools. Those skills were necessary for the
creation of the machines that would be used to develop
industry. - Many agricultural workers in Britain were forced off
farmland by a government-approved policy called the
enclosure movement. The landless peasants migrated to
cities, forming a large potential workforce for factories.
Why didn’t the Industrial Revolution begin somewhere else?
i. Africa had a great deal more natural resources than
did western Europe; Ming China had a well-organized
government and a very strong economy; and India and
China had a tradition of technological development.
ii. Only western Europe, however, had all the necessary
factors for industrial development by the mid-eighteenth
century: incentive, materials, and skilled-labor.
Mechanization of Textile Production
- British inventors developed machines that could massproduce
cloth and thread. - These muscle-powered, wood-and-iron machines were a hit
with manufacturers because they cranked out cloth faster
and cheaper than hand-making methods. - Bigger and quicker machines were developed, and
they were massed into large buildings called factories.
Waterwheels turning in fast-moving streams provided power
for the machines.
- The successes of machine-produced cloth and thread led
to the invention of the cotton gin (invented in CT), a machine that took
seeds out of cotton to prepare it for thread and cloth
manufacturing.
steam engine
By the 1760s, inventors in Britain had developed the steam
engine—one of the most revolutionary inventions of all
time—and made waterpower obsolete.
- With the development of the steam engine, factories
didn’t have to be built next to a stream—they could be
anywhere.
> In the United States, the first steamboat made seven
thousand years of sail power obsolete.
> In Britain, the steam-powered locomotive marked the
beginning of the end of the age of the horse in modern
societies.
fossil fuels
Coal was the initial fuel for the steam engines of the
Industrial Revolution, but as the nineteenth century
progressed, petroleum (–> diesel and gasoline) was increasingly used, especially
after the development of the internal combustion (diesel
and later, gasoline) engine. Both provided vastly greater
amounts of energy than any previous form of power.
steel
- Steel factories centered in regions near iron and coal
mines, materials vital to steel production. - Western Europe again led the way, followed soon by the
United States, Japan, and Russia. Steel became the “king
of metals” in the Industrial Age.
industrialization in the US
- In the South, single-crop cotton plantations boomed, as
did slavery. - railroads
- The national government’s power rose dramatically after
the Civil War, and it encouraged a strong pro-industry
attitude. - By 1900, the United States was the world’s biggest steel
producer and the U.S. Steel Corporation was the world’s
first billion-dollar corporation.
japan industrialization
- Using a show of industrial force, the U.S. government
sent navy ships to force open the trade door with Japan
in the 1850s. The Japanese government responded,
not by resisting, but by transforming its government,
society, and industry. - In their program of Western-style industrialization, the
Japanese built factories that specialized in silk textiles. - One significant difference between Japanese and
Western industrialization was that the Japanese
government had close ties to factory corporations. The
government often built factories, then sold them to
investors but stayed actively involved in their finances
and business decisions.
russia industrialization
- Unlike Japan and the “West,” Russia’s industrial progress
was limited in this era. - The government’s primary focus was on supporting
the elite owners of large agricultural estates. Serfdom
was still in place until the mid-nineteenth century. The
government freed the serfs, but unlike the United States
and Japan, Russiawas slow to shift to industrialization. - Late in this era, the Russian government sought foreign
investment in its industrial program. Russia became
a top producer of steel and built the Trans-Siberian
Railway, passing the United States in having the world’s
longest railroad. - Despite these accomplishments, Russia’s economy
remained largely mired in the fifteenth century. Peasant
laborers grew mostly wheat and potatoes for export
from the large estates still owned by friends of the czar.
industriazliation in latin amer
- Europeans invested great amounts of money to jumpstart
industrialization in Latin America - Great expectations followed and some railroad routes
were built, but overall, like Russia, Latin America
remained largely an exporter of crops grown by peasant
labor. - Products included coffee, bananas, wheat, beef, and
sugar. Industrialized nations sought copper, a major
export of Mexico.
