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1
Q

Sensory Memory time length

A

1-3 seconds

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2
Q

Short-term Memory time length

A

1 minute

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3
Q

Long-term Memory time length

A

hours-years

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4
Q

Digit Span Test

A
  • hear a set of numbers and repeat back after short delay
  • length of sequence increases as the test progresses
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5
Q

Digit Span Test Result

A

usually 7 (+/-2) words

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6
Q

Chunking

A
  • “recording information” ; depends on knowledge
  • functionally increases STM capacity
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7
Q

Brown-Peterson Task

A
  • 3 letters to remember
  • get a number and count backwards by threes until asked to recall letters
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8
Q

Performance on STM tasks will be determined by

A

how much one can rehearse and how long it has to be remembered by being recalled

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9
Q

Proactive Interference

A

Information stored previously makes it difficult to add new information (interference from OLD onto new)

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10
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

New information coming in overwrites older information in memory (interference from NEW onto old)

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11
Q

You have been studying Spanish vocabulary words for several hours, and you’ve been misremembering the words pretty frequently. You decide to start to start studying vocabulary for an upcoming physics test, and your performance improves. This is an example of

A

Release from proactive interference

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12
Q

An experiment that instructs participants to “Read the words that are presented below while also repeating ‘la, la, la’ out loud, wait for a signal, and then report what you recall” would probably be studying

A

The phonological loop

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13
Q

One role of ____ is suppressing information that is not relevant to a task.

A

the central executive

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14
Q

Finke and Pinker used a four-dot display to study mental imagery. Participants viewed the display, and after a two-second delay, participants saw an arrow. They were asked to report whether the arrow pointed to any of the dots in that they saw in the display. The significance of their results was they eliminated demand characteristics present in some of Kosslyn’s studies, and supported a _________ representation for mental images.

A

Spatial

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15
Q

The procedure used in Kosslyn’s island experiment is called the ____ procedure.

A

Mental Scanning

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16
Q

When interpreting his experimental results, Kosslyn concluded that they support the hypothesis that mental imagery involves ____ representations.

A

Spatial

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17
Q

Which of the following tasks is LEAST likely to activate the visual cortex due to mental imaging?

Select one:

a.
Imagine the meaning of the word “concept.”

b.
Imagine a chess board and where each piece would be placed.

c.
Imagine a typical mechanical pencil, and decide whether it is shorter or longer than a foot.

d.
Imagine how your house looks as you walk toward it.

A

Imagine the meaning of the word “concept”

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18
Q

Chunking primarily affects short-term memory by

A

increasing the apparent capacity of STM

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19
Q

The word-length effect implies that

A

The capacity of the phonological loop is limited

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20
Q

George Miller’s Magical Number Seven

A

The capacity of short-term memory is around 7 items

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21
Q

Baddeley and Hitch

A

Argued that STM involves more than just the storage of info. It is manipulated and analyzed too. This is called working memory

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22
Q

Working memory parts

A
  • central executive
  • phonological store
  • visuo-spatial sketchpad
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23
Q

Central Executive

A
  • attentional process ; limited capacity
  • gets info from sensory memory and coordinates sending info to LTM
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24
Q

Phonological Store

A
  • holds on to speech-like info
  • silent speech process (phonological loop) that rehearses this info. can’t be used while talking
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25
Q

Visuo-spatial sketchpad

A
  • stores mental images
  • important for spatial tasks
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26
Q

Testing the visuo-spatial sketchpad

A

Pattern span tasks

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27
Q

Pattern span tasks

A
  • look at grid with squares for a few secs, try to reproduce it after
  • most people can remember up to 9 squares
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28
Q

2 types of representation in cognitive psychology

A

symbolic & imagistic

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29
Q

Symbolic Imagery

A
  • abstract
  • learned meaning
  • discrete
  • no spatial medium
  • no point-for-point correspondence
  • unambiguous
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30
Q

Imagistic Imagery

A
  • concrete
  • iconic
    -distributed
  • spatial medium
  • point-for-point correspondence
  • ambiguous
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31
Q

Computers use symbolic representation therefore we know

A

information processing can be done just using symbols

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32
Q

Dual-Coding theory (Paivio)

A
  • proposes we have two independent, interconnected systems
  • nonverbal/visual (imagistic) and verbal (symbolic/propositional)
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33
Q

Dual-Coding experiment results

A
  • memory for pictures is better than memory for words
  • memory for concrete words is better than memory for abstract words
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34
Q

Properties of imagistic representations

A

spatial equivalence & transformational equivalence

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35
Q

Spatial equivalence

A

spatial arrangement of objects in mental images corresponds to actual arrangement in real world

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36
Q

Transformational equivalence

A

operations performed on images have the same dynamic characteristics as in real world

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37
Q

Bisiach and Luzzati Study

A
  • hemi-neglect patients look at the Piazza del Duomo and they report only have of it, and when they turn around, they report half of the other side
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38
Q

Bisiach and Luzzati Study Results

A

patients show the same deficit in their imagery as they do in their perception. this suggests that imagery uses some of the same brain areas as perception

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39
Q

Dual task paradigm

A

Used in research on attention to see if tasks use the same or different resources. Can be used to ask about imagery and perception

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40
Q

Segal and Fusella

A

tests auditory vs visual learning

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41
Q

Unconscious Recognition- Hemineglect

A

if you put a bug on the unattended side of a plate, the patient will refuse to eat the food even though they cannot see the bug

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42
Q

Unconscious Recognition- Prosopagnosia

A

patients have no conscious ability to rexognize faces even though their galvanic skin response and eye movement patterns show that the brain does recognize the person

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43
Q

Capgras Syndrome

A

patients can recognize familiar faces but insist they have been replaced by imposters/aliens

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44
Q

Capgras Syndrome occurs because

A

of problems with covert recognition therefore no familiar face response is shown therefore the patient believes someone is an imposter

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45
Q

Episodic (autobiographical) Memory

A
  • specific episodes in time
  • time-stamped
  • known source
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46
Q

Semantic Memory

A
  • no-time stamp
  • source unknown; you just know it
    ex. how to spell your mom’s name
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47
Q

Declarative memory parts

A

episodic & semantic

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48
Q

Non-declarative Memory parts

A

procedural, priming, & conditioning

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49
Q

Procedural Memory

A

knowing how to do something
ex. how to ride a bike

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50
Q

Priming Memory

A
  • implicit learning
  • experiencing stimulus multiple times change response
    ex. read faster the second time
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51
Q

Conditioning Memory

A

classical and operant

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52
Q

Encoding

A

learning the material

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53
Q

Retrieval

A

accessing the material

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54
Q

Recall

A

you generate the material

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55
Q

Recognition

A

you identify studied material

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56
Q

Tulving

A

Gave people a list of words and asked them to recall the words; people who organized the most remembered the best

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57
Q

Taxonomic organizing

A

items have similar properties

58
Q

Thematic organizing

A

making up a story ; works well for things that must be remembered in order

59
Q

Why does organization help?

A

it provides support for new information and cues for how to find it

60
Q

Shallow processing

A

surface, perceptual features

61
Q

Deep processing

A

linked to meaning

62
Q

Hyde and Jenkins results

A

better recall for deeper encoding

63
Q

Rogers, Kuiper, and Kirker

A

study words grouped by appearance, sound, meaning, and self-relevance

64
Q

Rogers, Kuiper, and Kirker results

A

judgements about self lead to better recall than other tasks

65
Q

Encoding is better for

A
  • meaning-based information
  • information with personal significance
  • information that was actively generated
66
Q

Eysenck and Eysenck

A

Tested whether or not depth of processing was all that mattered. People were given a list of words with some weird ones

67
Q

Eysenck and Eysenck results

A

recall was almost as high for the shallow as for the semantic task for distinctive words. Task emphasized how they were different

68
Q

Distinctiveness

A

possessing features that makes it stand out in some way compared to something else

69
Q

Distinctiveness increases memory by

A
  • increasing attention at encoding
  • increasing retrievability
70
Q

2 types of distinctiveness

A
  • primary: with respect to immediate context
  • secondary: with respect to prior experience
71
Q

Primary Distinctiveness

A

incongruity defined with respect to immediate context; Von Restorff Effect

72
Q

Secondary Distinctiveness

A

Incongruous with past experience
- life experiences
- orthographic distinctiveness (words with unusual spellings well remembered)
- unusual faces (unique faces easier to remember than typical ones)

73
Q

State-dependent learning

A

recall easier when your mind/body is in the same state as during learning

74
Q

Amnesia causes

A

damage to medial temporal lobe

75
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

amnesia for events that preceded some disturbance to the brain

76
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

Amnesia for events that occur after some disturbance to the brain

77
Q

What does amnesia tell us?

A

It supports a distinction between declarative and non-declarative memory. Supports a distinction between the processes involved in forming a memory and the representations that are eventually formed

78
Q

Retrograde Amnesia Characteristics

A
  • variable time, may lose decades of memories less time
  • most likely to recover oldest memories
  • typically spares “overlearned” material: language, social skills, general intelligence
  • doesn’t affect procedural memory
79
Q

Anterograde Amnesia Characteristics

A
  • STM is fine
  • all sensory modalities are affected
  • does not affect procedural memory (can learn new skills)
  • temporal gradient: also see memory loss for events a few years prior to injury
80
Q

For the experiment where participants saw an office and then reported what they saw, items like books, which weren’t actually there, were “remembered” by some participants. This experiment is an example of how _____ affect memory.

Question 1Select one:

a.
schemas

b.
biases

c.
some kinds of misinformation

d.
scripts

A

a. schemas

81
Q

Which of the following is LEAST likely to encourage elaborative rehearsal of a word?

Question 2Select one:

a.
Making up a sentence using the word.

b.
Generating synonyms and antonyms of the word.

c.
Repeating the word multiple times.

d.
Linking concepts to the new word.

A

c.
Repeating the word multiple times.

82
Q

Which of the statements below is incorrect?

Question 3Select one:

a.
Eyewitness testimony is often only partially correct, but viewing a recording of a crime considerably improves accuracy at choosing the “perpetrator” from a lineup.

b.
False memories can be created for events that a person experienced recently.

c.
False memories for events that occurred when a person was a young child can be created through suggestion.

d.
Faulty eyewitness testimony has caused miscarriages of justice.

A

a.
Eyewitness testimony is often only partially correct, but viewing a recording of a crime considerably improves accuracy at choosing the “perpetrator” from a lineup.

83
Q

Kevin found that studying for his Latin exam made it harder to recall some of the French vocabulary words he had studied earlier. This effect is called

Question 5Select one:

a.
serial position effect.

b.
retroactive interference.

c.
memory-trace replacement.

d.
suggestibility

A

b.
retroactive interference.

84
Q

The misinformation effect happens when memory for an event is changed by being exposed to misleading information

Question 6Select one:

a.
just before the event.

b.
during encoding of the event.

c.
after the event.

d.
all of the above

A

c.
after the event.

85
Q

What kind of memories are generally the LEAST affected by retrograde amnesia?

Question 7Select one:

a.
emotional memories

b.
proactive memories

c.
recent memories

d.
older memories

A

d.
older memories

86
Q

Based on research on the spacing effect, the study strategy that will result in the best performance is

Question 9Select one:

a.
short sessions that are spread across multiple days.

b.
long sessions spread across multiple days.

c.
long sessions that are all on one day.

d.
short sessions that are all on one day.

A

a.
short sessions that are spread across multiple days.

87
Q

Which example below is the clearest real-life example of state-dependent learning?

Question 10Select one:

a.
Sydnee doesn’t think about her first love, Horatio, very often. However, he always comes to mind in when she hears “their song”.

b.
Nico ran into a psychology professor he took a class with three semesters ago at the hardware store. However, he recognized her right away.

c.
Moira has very bad test anxiety. In order to manage it, she tries to study in a relaxing environment in order to promote better encoding of her memories.

d.
Mickey hasn’t been to his family’s cabin since he was a child, but he still has many vivid memories of time he spent there.

A

a.
Sydnee doesn’t think about her first love, Horatio, very often. However, he always comes to mind in when she hears “their song”.

88
Q

Which of the following would be likely to cause shallow processing of a word?

Question 8Select one:

a.
Saying whether a word is a noun or a verb.

b.
Paying attention to what a word means.

c.
Rating the pleasantness of a word.

d.
Counting how many vowels are in a word.

A

d.
Counting how many vowels are in a word.

89
Q

False memories are best-characterized as

Question 4Select one:

a.
not common in the wider population, but fairly common for unusually suggestible or inattentive subgroups.

b.
very common in laboratory settings but very unlikely in the real world.

c.
a natural consequence of a largely adaptive memory system.

d.
likely to affect details but not to create entire fictitious events.

A

a.
a natural consequence of a largely adaptive memory system.

90
Q

What kind of memory errors can occur?

A
  • we fail to retrieve information when we want to
  • we retrieve inaccurate information
  • we fail to forget things we might want to
91
Q

Explicit measures ask

A

people to make overt, specific reference to their memory

92
Q

Examples of explicit measures

A

recall, cued recall, recognition

93
Q

“What can you remember?”

A

Recall

94
Q

“What does this remind you of?”

A

Cued recall

95
Q

“Which of these items have you seen before?”

A

Recognition

96
Q

“I remember this exact thing”

A

Recollection

97
Q

“I feel like I have seen this before”

A

Familiarity

98
Q

Implicit measures

A

Do NOT ask people to reference their own memory

99
Q

Examples of implicit measures

A

performance measures (RT or accuracy) and physiological measures (eye movements & ERPs)

100
Q

Jacoby and Dallas study conditions

A
  • letter judgement (does it contain the letter l)
  • rhyme judgement (does it rhyme with train)
  • meaning judgement (does the word refer to the nervous system)
101
Q

Jacoby and Dallas Test conditions

A

recognition & perceptual identification

102
Q

Jacoby and Dallas 1981 study

A

tested participant’s memory for a list of words

103
Q

Jacoby and Dallas study results

A
  • explicit memory is more rigidly linked to original stimulus and context
  • implicit memory depends on modality and other perceptual characteristics
104
Q

Why do we care about the different types of memory?

A
  • we might want different strategies for getting information in and out of these systems
  • it provides cross-check for situation where accuracy is very important
  • want to have accurate models of memory
105
Q

Blocking

A

refers to a failure to be able to retrieve information that we know is stored in the system

106
Q

Transient Failure

A

Can recall that information at a later time

107
Q

Tip of the tongue characteristics

A
  • fail to retrieve a word that you are certain you know
  • often can get some partial information about the word (meaning, initial sound, length)
108
Q

Baker/baker paradox

A

two types of labels but the actual word is the same
- recall for occupations is better than recall for names

109
Q

Parts of a memory

A
  • content (info can be remembered)
  • source (where info comes from)
  • fleuncy/familiarity (how easily info comes to mind)
110
Q

Source memory

A

Memory for contextual elements
(where you learned something or who told you something)

111
Q

Failures in source memory

A
  • can’t tell similar instances of something apart
  • can’t differentiate between having done something and having imagined/heard about it
112
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

memories of particularly traumatic/emotional events are immune from being forgotten

113
Q

Memory conjunction error

A

information blends together in memory

114
Q

Brewer and Treyens Office Experiment

A

Had people look at an office and report what they remembered

115
Q

Loftus and Palmer Experiment

A

Showed people videos of car accidents and asked them questions with controlled wording to see how it changed their perception

116
Q

Consequences of suggestibility

A
  • how we are questioned changes the memory itself
  • we incorporate misleading info from other sources into our personal recollections
117
Q

Characteristics of people likely to generate false memories

A
  • good visual imagery abilities
  • poor source memory
  • confidence that their memory is good
  • under hypnosis
  • likely to succumb to social pressure
118
Q

Extremes of suggestibility

A
  • false confessions
  • false memories of childhood sexual abuse
119
Q

How do we classify information?

A
  • classical view (definitions)
  • probabilistic view (similarity)
120
Q

Classical View

A
  • Objects are categorized using properties that are necessary and sufficient
  • all category members must have ALL properties otherwise it is not a member
121
Q

Problems of a classical view

A
  • some categories do not have clearly defined features
  • some instances of a category seem “better” than others
122
Q

Probabilistic View

A
  • Classification of an object is determined by level of similarity to the category representation
  • Category representation includes features usually true of categories
123
Q

2 types of probabilistic representation

A

Prototype & Exemplar

124
Q

Prototype Account

A

Summary representation including all the typical properties

125
Q

Single, unitary representation containing the “average” features of the category

A

Probabilistic view

126
Q

Exemplar Account

A

a known, individual member of a category
- NO Unitary description

127
Q
  • category represented by an “average”
  • fit to category, based on similarity
  • static and unitary
A

Prototype Account

128
Q
  • category is a set of exemplars
  • fit based on similarity and probabilistic
  • not unitary adn not static
A

Exemplar Account

129
Q

How is knowledge organized?

A

semantic networks & spreading activation model

130
Q

Semantic Network Models

A
  • Concepts represented as hierarchies of interconnected concept nodes
  • Nodes have associated features
131
Q

Cognitive Economy

A
  • properties stored at most general (highest) possible level
  • subordinates inherit attributes of superordinates
132
Q

Semantic Network Strengths

A
  • can predict a lot of RT data
  • cognitive economy (efficient)
133
Q

Semantic Network Weaknesses

A
  • some data challenge hierarchical assumptions
  • can’t explain typicality effects
  • RT data better explained by strength of association between words
134
Q

RT data is better predicted by the ______________________ between words than by category distance

A

Association Strength

135
Q

Spreading activation structure

A
  • Not hierarchical, all types of relations represented the same
  • Length of connection proportional to relatedness
  • Search time depends on distance
136
Q

Spreading activation mechanism

A

activation of one node leads to activation of other nodes nearby

137
Q

What is essential for any type of top-down processing?

A

General knowledge

138
Q

Categories are likely to be defined _______

A

Probabilistically

139
Q

Knowledge can be represented as a system of _____________

A

Interconnected Symbols

140
Q
A

Cognitive Psychology (2 decks)

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