1st Slide

Question 1

Nominal scale

Answer 1

Data divided into different categories

E.g. Male/female, black/red, etc

Question 2

Ordinal scale

Answer 2

Data divided into categories that can be ranked

E.g. good, better, best or very satisfied, satisfied, not satisfied.

Question 3

Interval scales

Answer 3

Data that can be ranked

E.g. temperature reading in Celsius. Human body temp.

Question 4

What is a ratio scale?

Answer 4

Ratio scale applies to data that can be ranked. All arithmetic operations (+, -, / or x) can be done. (There is an absolute or inherent zero)

Example: Height, weight, distance, duration etc. Zero weight is meaningful, and 10kg is twice as heavy as 5kg bag.

Question 5

What does the scale of measurement determine?

Answer 5

The scale determines the amount of information contained in the data. It determines the mathematical operations that can be performed on the variables in the data set. The mathematical operations in turn determine which statistical measures can be applied to the data.

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Question 6

What are the four scales of measurement?

Answer 6

NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL, RATIO

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Question 7

Which scale of measurement includes the terms ‘First, second, third, fourth’?

Answer 7

Ordinal scale

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Question 8

What scale of measurement includes ‘Room 109, Room 100’?

Answer 8

Nominal scale

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Question 9

What is the starting point of any statistical analysis?

Answer 9

Identifying the most appropriate source of data

Biases, ambiguities, and errors may flaw data collected. Even the most sophisticated statistical methods will not produce accurate information.

Question 10

How are data sources classified?

Answer 10

Data sources are classified as
1. Primary
2. Secondary

A source is primary if the data collector is the one using the data for analysis. A source is secondary if one organization or individual has compiled the data to be used by another organization or individual.

Question 11

What is a primary source of data?

Answer 11

A source is primary if the data collector is the one using the data for analysis.

E.g. Administrative records, Government statistics, Company records, published information (internet, publications)

Question 12

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a primary source of data?

Answer 12

Advantage: Satisfy the specific needs or interest of user. User has control of what data to collect.
Disadvantage: Difficult, costly and time consuming to collect. May be labour intensive.

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Question 13

What is a secondary source of data?

Answer 13

A source is secondary if one organization or individual has compiled the data to be used by another organization or individual.

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Question 14

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a secondary source of data?

Answer 14

Advantage: Less expensive. Immediately available.
Disadvantage: May not satisfy needs of user. May not have complete information. No control over methods used for collection and accuracy of data.

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Question 15

What are the primary data sources in biostatistics?

Answer 15

Primary data source may be obtained from Experimental or Observational studies

Data collected through the conduct of an experiment

Question 16

What are the examples of sources of data for health?

Answer 16

Important Data sources for health include Experiments, Surveys, census, Observational studies, and Hospital Records- outpatient records, admissions and discharges etc

Question 17

What are the applications of statistics in health system evaluation?

Answer 17

Health system evaluation using indicators

Health evaluation is an important managerial tool that allows for feedback and reprogramming.

Evaluation in the health system is often difficult because most of the outcomes are not quantifiable and are the results of more than one factor/programme.

Indicators have therefore been developed to monitor progress towards the achievement of Health goals and also to increase efficiency.

Question 18

Sources of data for the development of indicators

Answer 18

1. Vital events register
2. Population and censuses
3. Routine health service records
4. Epidemiological surveillance data
5. Sample surveys
6. Disease registers

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Question 19

Characteristics of a good indicator

Answer 19

• Relevant
• Feasible for information gathering; technical, financial, and operational
• Valid; measures what they are supposed to
• Specific; reflects changes only in the concerned situation
• Reliable; consistent results under same methods and circumstances
• Sensitive; reflects changes in the concerned phenomenon

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Question 20

Examples of health indicators

Answer 20

• Percentage of births attended by skilled health personnel
• Proportion of government facilities providing services for selected programmes
• Bed turnover: The average number of patients managed per bed in a given period
• Total number of COVID-19 tests per confirmed case
• Total confirmed COVID-19 cases per million people

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Question 21

Statistical packages available for data analysis in medical practice and ad hoc research

Answer 21

EPIINFO, SPSS, EXCEL

Most common statistical packages used to produce statistical analysis

Question 22

Uses of computers in health and medical fields

Answer 22

Storage, retrieval and processing of in-patient records, immunization data, family planning data, simulation analysis, cost analysis, clinical diagnosis, medical research data processing, rapid transfer of health data, library search, word processing, internet search, communication, documentation

Various applications of computers in health and medical fields