18c Opera examples

Question 1

Mozart writes to Leopold Mozart that he wants to write and set opera seria, because it was most prestigious at the time, associated with royalty

Answer 1

1778

Question 2

Opera styles in Beethoven’s music

Answer 2

Recitative styles in Tempest sonata (1801-2), i
Symphony no. 9 (1822-24), iv

Question 3

Scientific revolution after Newton’s discoveries > expansion of global trade and Industrial Revolution > growth of urban societies > ideological ramifications

Answer 3

Late 17th century

Question 4

Emergence of personal identity

Answer 4

John Locke- Essay concerning humane understanding (1690)

Question 5

National identity developing through 18c

Answer 5

Herder’s philosophical writings (1770-90s)

Question 6

Opera spurned in musicology until about 1980

Answer 6

Because it was considered only possible to be discussed by amateur opera lovers

Question 7

1637

Answer 7

Opera shifts to a more commercial basis
First public theatre opens in Venice, others quickly follow
Stories, style and structure of the genre are created > operatic conventions we know today

Question 8

1650s: dissemination of opera

Answer 8

Opera disseminated from Venice throughout European courts and court-cities; singers, composers and librettists travelled with their genres

Question 9

1670s

Answer 9

Tragedie en musique

Question 10

1670-80s

Answer 10

England borrowed from France, developed their own version ‘Dramatick opera’

Question 11

Genre

Answer 11

Opera as a product (genre)- genre and works as artistic products. Dispersed from Italy in 17c through rise of urban population

Question 12

1729

Answer 12

Panini’s painting of Teatro Argentina concert in Rome- audience sat in a horseshoe shape, people being able to see those in other boxes
Luxury and audience centricity of 18c opera house

Question 13

Handel “Rodrigo” (Florence, 1707), end of I

Answer 13

Music cuts through audience chatter between recit and aria:
A lot of tonic and dominant polarity, mainly without modulation
Simple ABA ritornello with melodic and textual repetition (expected for early 18c)
Word play: soprano held dominant on ‘constanza’, challenging the singer to control and grow in voice at the end of her breath, a play on constancy

Question 14

Science and philosophy on opera’s developments

Answer 14

‘Age of Enlightenment’ alongside and following the Scientific Revolution (Galilei, Newton)
Huge new optimism in the power of the human mind to reason, power of science, this was called ‘Natural Philosophy’
Ideas of the ‘Self’ influenced opera

Question 15

18c and beyond

Answer 15

Composers wanted to write opera seria
Handel- an outlier, stylistically anomalous
Question of why the opera seria genre was so long lived, but we know so little about it

Question 16

Italy- a powerhouse for opera, with certain Italian locations having more operatic influence than others

Answer 16

Origins-1600 in court city-states, eg Florence, Mantua, Rome
1637 onwards- Venice, commercial opera, centre of dissemination
1690s- Rome, Arcadian academy (Metastasio, Zeno) create opera seria

Question 17

Arcadian academy reforms

Answer 17

17c opera- complaints about corruption in tastes and standards, which used vocal and literal pyrotechnics to attract audiences
This reform- creation of opera serial, called ‘dramma per musica’

Question 18

Naples- biggest city in Italy

Answer 18

Neapolitan ‘school’ in singing and composing (Vinci, Porpora, Leo, Hasse)
Development of opera buffa in Naples- lighter style in composing and singing dominated from 1720s/30s onwards
Opera buffa is disseminated from Naples

Question 19

Librettists- status

Answer 19

Often aristocrats, trained in arts and literature
Metastasio was taught and renamed with a meta-Greek name by one of his patrons, originally trained as a lawyer
Did librettists have more authority over the work than composers did, since history is determined by the people who write it?

Question 20

Characteristics of 17c opera (pre-opera seria)

Answer 20

Characters: comic, tragic, serious, many
Plots: myth, pastoral, allegorical, supernatural, comic subplots
Arias: many, short, flowing in and out of recitative

Question 21

Characteristics of 18c drama per musica (opera seria)

Answer 21

Characters: heroic, serious, historical, 5-8- Metastasio’s libretti often included 1/2 pairs of lovers/friends/siblings, created balance, Artaserse (1730)
Plots: emphasis on place and time, often realistic, no subplots, focused on action, usually lieto fine, changes of heart
Arias: fewer, longer, da capo, exit convention, quasi monologue
Status: Librettist and royal/noble patron

Question 22

Opera’s ‘exotic’ stories

Answer 22

Metastasio (1752)- L’eroe cinese
Alexander the Great stories were set in India/Middle East- operas “Poro” and “Cleofide”
International trade > social and physical mobility, eg Farinelli had portraits showing his aristocratic status

Question 23

French tradition of ‘liaison des scenes’

Answer 23

Meant that the stage was never empty, acts were structured to bring the number of characters up to the middle, reducing numbers on stage towards the end of the act

Question 24

Da capo aria- literary status linked to dramatic and musical structure

Answer 24

Da capo aria + exit mechanism allowed bowing, encores, applause
Repeating a section of music and text allowed extensive ornamentation, eg “Rodrigo” (1707)- building up audience expectation towards the final word ‘constanza’
People would come back to see the same opera to watch the new ornamentations and improvisations, creating ‘new’ music

Question 25

Secco recitative

Answer 25

Important as a break for the audiences and as a musical link

Question 26

Arias- used in moments of summary/crisis, sometimes emphasised using recitative build-up

Answer 26

Metastasio "Artaserse" (Vinci's setting in Rome, 1730) Arbace decides to calm himself after declaring his father 'barbarous' but ends up giving him a paternal embrace and defends him as his 'king'

Question 27

Aria as a metaphor for balance

Answer 27

Hasse- "Siroe" (Metastasio, Bologna 1733) "O placido il mare" aria- XYY pattern for the first two lines about being 'placid'- typical repetition of text in music Accompaniment has arpeggios in all parts Inconclusive plagal cadence at the end of XYY- no 'I am this or that' binary concept Hasse's setting uses economical musical means, reflecting the poetic structure in its cadential structure Meanwhile, Handel's "Siroe" (London, 1728) uses more old-fashioned, longer phrases and sequences, but also acknowledges the text binary and gets to the dominant at the same time as Hasse

Question 28

Modular structure of librettos and singers

Answer 28

Market-driven, individual units that could be cut up and used elsewhere, creating a singer/libretto hierarchy/ranking. This led to commercial success However, unoriginality and suitcase arias, singers blamed for lack of creativity Each theatre would have a house poet, who would adapt the text to the theatre

Question 29

Features of the tragedie (1670s)

Answer 29

Court-oriented Lavish spending on scenery, chorus, ballet Listener attentiveness Unique style of recitative as a promotion of Frenchness- the French were strongly aware about the difference between French and Italian opera Ensemble display to glorify the king instead of individual displayF

Question 30

Features of opera seria (unlike the tragedie in music and dramatic style)

Answer 30

Commercially oriented Formulaic plot and structure Modular division (simple récit and aria, where audiences didn't always pay attention to recit)- variable audience, privileging of singer's performance and aria ornamentation Audiences attended multiple performances on season subscription

Question 31

Development of the tragedie in France

Answer 31

Sense of tradition in spoken/sung theatre, vs opera being a borrowed genre from Italy French pride in self-definition, especially against Italians Created dispute and self-consciousness, developing the genre

Question 32

French influence on Italian opera

Answer 32

1690s- French spoken tragedy influenced the Italian shift away from comic Venetian supernatural plots, leading to Italian opera seria

Question 33

Tragedie en musique

Answer 33

A myth-based story with divertissements of song and dance, and allegorical prologue in praise of the monarch Charpentier "Medée" prologue is a celebration of Louis

Question 34

Origins of the tragedie

Answer 34

First performed at court, then in Paris Lully + librettist Quinault, "Atys", "Phaeton"- important partnership for the foundation of the genre Longevity of Lully's career, royal endorsement, establishing characteristics of the genre eg eulogising to the king Full-score publications of works from Bellerophon created a standardised repertory

Question 35

Dramatic characteristics of Lully's tragedie

Answer 35

Recitative- most important form for him Petit airs included repeated texts, variation on the structure of a musical phrase- these flowed in and out of recitative Airs were initially for minor characters, prologue, divertissements Divertissements were dominated by chorus, ensemble, ballet, orchestra

Question 36

Conservative continuity in the 18c

Answer 36

Lully's proteges seen as successors, eg Charpentier Works were retained in the repertory until mid-18c, with little change, but later Lully's works were streamlined with recit and airs cut or shortened, allowing slower performances and more ornamentation When older works were revived, dates of previous performances were given- significant for standardisation and reviving older operas

Question 37

1670-90

Answer 37

Tragedie dominant at the Versailles court under Lully and Louis XIV 1690- Tragedie shifts to Paris

Question 38

1690-1715- Louis loses interest in the tragedie

Answer 38

Parisian influence replaces Versailles' > rise of lighter genres, comic and local characters > Orchestra becomes more prominent, especially with 'noise' music in "Alcyone" where composer Marais evokes a storm 1697- opera-ballet begins with "L'Europe gallant" by de la Motte and Campra

Question 39

Features of opera-ballet

Answer 39

Separate stories for each act, loosely related Contemporary, comic, local characters Dance and lighter/Italianate music, where da capo arias dominated

Question 40

Rameau

Answer 40

Changes to the tragedie culminated in Rameau, who made innovations in both tragedie and opera-ballet Accused of turning sonata into opera Lully's tragedie + lighter genres = Parisian 18c tragedie

Question 41

Rameau as a moderniser

Answer 41

"Hippolyte et Aricie"- "Trio des Parques" Daring enharmonic writing, which describes the hell the characters will return to on Earth So hard that singers refused to perform it, only later did critics see it as a great piece of music Rameau was criticised for introducing so much music and many more airs/instrumental music, interrupting the recitative Seen as a challenge to Lully's traditional forms Took time for the French to accept Rameau's ideas- conservative, ancient resistance around Lully

Question 42

1730s

Answer 42

Lullistes vs Ramistes

Question 43

1770s

Answer 43

Rameau then used as the standard to judge Gluck- ongoing balancing between composers reflects a sense of history

Question 44

Opera directors in the 1750-60s

Answer 44

Reformers of their own: Modernised old works with updated orchestrations Updating works in the French tradition but still maintaining a sense of integrity and difference from Italian music

Question 45

Opera seria- France vs Italy

Answer 45

Based on classical myth (France) vs classical history (Italy)

Question 46

Opera buffa

Answer 46

Humorous, about ordinary people Mozart- "Figaro", comic love duet where Suzanna winds Figaro around her music and is in charge, tricking him to accept her argument

Question 47

Late 17c to early 18c- separation of genres

Answer 47

1670s France- tragedie Late 17c/early 18c- comic, contemporary characters vs serious, heroic characters 18c Italy- opera seria/opera buffa (arising from these types of characters) > urban growth and popular theatre demand, Naples' Teatro Nuovo (built 1724) housed 1000

Question 48

Features of 18c intermezzo

Answer 48

2/3 comic characters, derived from 17c intermedio Gradually separates from serious opera in Venice- split between comic/serious, form definition Naples later separates comic scenes from the main opera, but later these grow fewer and moved to the entr'acte 1730s- Naples omits the 3rd scene, establishing the unified 2-scene intermezzo

Question 49

Intermezzo- plot types

Answer 49

2 main types: One character proposes to the other, refused, argue, make up and marry Two characters marry early but mismatched Pergolesi (Naples, 1733) "La serva padrona"- maid Serpina tricks her master Uberto into marrying her by pretending to be engaged to a soldier

Question 50

Dramatic/comic characteristics of the intermezzo

Answer 50

Popular sources Parodies of traditional opera elements, including the serious style and supernatural scenes Banter, showing off Young female character is often shrewder than the older man, "La serva padrona" Use of disguise (increases number of characters) eg "La serva padrona" act 2, Vespone arrives disguised as Tempesta

Question 51

Musical characteristics of the intermezzo

Answer 51

Verbose/colloquial texts Arias lack coloratura- repeated, brief motifs Key aria types included buffo, mock-pathetic/parody, dance-style airs 2 or more ensembles in each intermezzo Each intermezzo ends with a climactic duet "Aspettare" (Uberto's aria) from "La serva padrona": leaping melody, text repetition and fragmentation. These songs are designed for good actors, but not great singers

Question 52

Mid 18c- interchange of opera buffa with intermezzo

Answer 52

Grew in length and number of characters

Question 53

Features of opera buffa

Answer 53

3-act comic opera Local dialect from Naples > travelled through Rome and Venice 1700s Naples- proliferation of use of popular theatres, local and contemporary settings in dialect 7/8 characters, stock character types

Question 54

1729- "La Constanza" by Saddumene and Fischetti (Neapolitans)

Answer 54

Opera buffa staged in Rome with Neapolitan buffi and local castrati for women's roles The first Neapolitan opera staged in Rome Opera buffa therefore fluorished with Neapolitan composers and local intermezzo singers, with serious roles sung in Tuscan and comic ones in dialect

Question 55

1745

Answer 55

Venetian composer Galuppi comes to dominate opera buffa when he collaborates with famous librettist Goldoni- well-known partnership

Question 56

Seria vs buffa- structures

Answer 56

Seria: singers dominated the musical form, libretto valued as literature, music composed to suit singers and libretto Intermezzo/buffa: libretto contained stock (bourgeois) drama, actors dominated, music tailored to drama and actor-singers, works circulated within companies which created a repertory and stabilised performance modes

Question 57

Features of Goldoni and Galuppi's works- stabilisation of the opera buffa genre

Answer 57

Popularised: Introduzione, with many ensembles Multi-section action finale from Neapolitan brawl scenes Mixture of comic and serious roles, and mezzo carretere (in the middle, could link and talk to both parties)

Question 58

Innovations in aria type- opera buffa

Answer 58

"Cinque, Dieci" duet from "Don Giovanni" (1787)- only when Susanna comes in does the audience realise it's not a solo buffa aria, but a duet

Question 59

Goldoni's chief innovation

Answer 59

Popularisation of the action-finale, shifting from the buffi to incorporating noble/mezzo carratere roles This was seen as problematic, with Count Gozzi thinking it made noble people look stupid > potential to disrupt social hierarchies

Question 60

Buffa aria as a source of parody and comment

Answer 60

"Deh vieni non tardar" (Susanna, Figaro 1786) Susanna adopts the countess's outfit but also her style of singing, with long seria legato lines She disguises herself to trick the count, breaking gendered and social hierarchies

Question 61

Musical cross-referencing in opera buffa

Answer 61

"Figaro" (Mozart) and "Il re Teodoro" (Paisiello) Don Bartolo's "La Vendetta" comes from Teodoro's "Io re sono", because the same actor was singing in the two operas, so Mozart made a joke Paisiello borrowed his text from Metastasio's famous aria, well known to the audience in layers of references

Question 62

Exoticism

Answer 62

Alexander the Great stories were set in India/Middle East- “Poro” and “Cleofide” Metastasio (1752)- “L’eroe cinese”

Question 63

18c exoticism and growing knowledge (evaluation)

Answer 63

As 18c progressed, lessons were learned about forced labour and plantation slavery; what was previously seen as luxury was now recognised as serving only the highest classes > decline of lavish opera series and more satire/comic genres Opera and music as a way to advance one’s status but also a way to shame people who did not have updated cultural knowledge

Question 64

Farinelli, in Leo’s “Catone in Utica” (impasticciata opera)

Answer 64

Altered the musical selection and substituted his own arias, inspiring other singers to do the same End of Act 2- sings 2 virtuosic arias instead of the now lost original, containing ‘coloraturas, arpeggios, trill chains, leaps’ (Over 2020) These were the only sections of ‘virtuosic bravura aria’ in the opera However, Farinelli sustains the excitement by transferring Leo’s “Che legge spietata” from 1.3 next, not demanding but musically dramatic and powerful (Over 2020)

Question 65

Comic opera “Il convitato di Pietra” (1783)

Answer 65

How Enlightenment-era drama ‘portray[ed] all levels of local society’; scenes set in “a countryside with rustic dwellings”, eg 1.5, where characters dance the tarantella accompanied by indigenous Neapolitan instruments eg tambour, colascione, ‘associated cultural markers’ specific to Naples (Deldonna 2012) This setting is rustic instead of ‘bucolic’, ‘Castilian’ and idealistic, more immediacy and realism in the Neapolitan setting

Question 66

Comic opera “Il convitato di Pietra” and national identity

Answer 66

Giovanni’s subordinate Pulcinella often uses a ‘sharp’ tone as he ‘confronts and confounds his master at every opportunity’ in Neapolitan dialect (Deldonna 2012) Naples had historically been passed between Spanish and Austrian rule, and was in a process of national reform in the 1730s, so discussion of Neapolitan identity would have been particularly relevant

Question 67

Aria “Aspettare” from comic opera “La serva padrona”

Answer 67

Sung by Uberto Text fragmentation/repetition, melody leaping around These arias are designed for good actors and not great singers, meaning audiences were drawn more to the action rather than the intellectualised musical content

Question 68

Mid-18c comic opera being integrated with intermezzo: “La Diavolessa” (Galuppi, Goldoni)

Answer 68

Confusion of classes/identities of the two sets of lovers, where the main lovers plan to disguise themselves as devils to frighten the main noble

Question 69

Early 18c comic opera: “The Barber of Seville” (Rossini)

Answer 69

6/8 Venetian boatman’s drinking song, bass voice showing comedic extremes Interpolated recitative where he begins writing a song, suggesting he is poetically cultured; use of the Greek word ‘antithesis’ > educated background, associated with Metastasio, known across Italy

Question 70

Buffa aria “L’astratto” (by Piccinni/Petrosellini)

Answer 70

The lines between seria and buffa speech are blurred (link to Hunter 1999) Hero Leandro conveys his intense love for Lauren comically, literally and metaphorically, in the same aria Grand words eg ‘consumerare’ and ‘incendiare’, ‘divine assistance’ as he asks for God and Lauren’ mercy These were metaphors common in opera seria, but divine and fire imagery were commonly understood as markers of passion The aria melody also begins calmly and gains energy through repeatedly rising and falling passages Therefore, buffa aria is accessible to audiences of different generations and backgrounds, uses conventional material in a ‘“natural” depiction of humanity’ (Hunter 2012)