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Wine Production > 18. Specific Options for Red Winemaking > Flashcards

18. Specific Options for Red Winemaking Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the three factors that affect extraction of anthocyanins, tannins and flavours in red winemaking?

A
  • Temperature; higher temperatures = greater extraction
  • Time on skins and mixing the skins in juice
  • The medium in which the extraction is taking place Eg. Tannins are more soluble in alcoholic solutations and anthocyanins are most soluble in aqueous solutions (must).
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2
Q

Outline the relationship between anthocyanins, tannins and oxygen.

A
  • Anthocyanins as single molecules are not very stable and the colour they provide can be lost or altered
  • Anthocyanins become more stable when binded with tannins, resulting in more colour stability
  • Oxygen facilitates this reaction, hence winemaking processes that encourage gentle oxidation promotes colour stability
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3
Q

What is the key aim of maceration before fermentation?

A

To extract colour and flavours without extracting tannin

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4
Q

What is cold soaking also referred to as?

A

Cold maceration or pre-fermentation maceration

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5
Q

Outline the process of cold maceration/pre-fermentation maceration.

A
  • Juice and skins are chilled to 4-10°C (reduces oxidation, spoilage organisms and the risk of spontaneous fermentation).
  • It is kept like this for 3-7 days, usually with the use of punching down and/or pumping over to mix up the skins and juice, aiding extraction.
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6
Q

What are the advantages of cold soaking?

A
  • Gentle
  • The cold temperatures result in a slow extraction, which can easily be monitored and controlled to achieve the level of extraction desired.
  • Reduces the rate of oxidation and risk of spoilage organisms
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7
Q

Give an example of a scenario where cold soaking in commonly used.

A

Cold soaking is used for when the winemaker wanted to extract colour and flavour without tannin.

For example, Pinot Noir has low levels of anthocyanins, so cold soaking is commonly used to increase colour.

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8
Q

What are the two options of maceration before fermentation?

A
  • Cold soaking (pre-fermentation maceration)
  • Macerations using heat (flash détente and thermovinification)
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9
Q

Outline the process of thermovinification.

A

Thermovinification involves heating the must to around 50–60°C and sometimes higher. The time spent macerating at this heat can range from a number of minutes to several hours; generally, the higher the temperature, the shorter the maceration.

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10
Q

What is thermovinification?

A

A method of maceration using heat - conducted before fermentation

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11
Q

What is flash détente?

A

A method of maceration using heat - conducted before fermentation

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12
Q

Outline the process of flash détente.

A

Destemmed grapes are quickly heated to 85–90°C (185– 194°F) and then rapidly cooled under a vacuum. This takes place in as little as two minutes. The process bursts the cells in the grape skins, allowing a very rapid extraction of anthocyanins and flavours.

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13
Q

How does flash détente and thermovinification treat grapes affected by botrytis?

A

The high temperatures denature oxidative enzymes (called laccase) produced by the rot.

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14
Q

What is flash détente used for?

A
  • For colour and flavour extraction (maceration before fermentation)
  • To treat grapes affected by botrytis (the high temperatures denature laccase).
  • To treat for smoke taint
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15
Q

What is thermovinification used for?

A
  • Colour and flavour extraction (maceration before fermentation).
  • To treat grapes affected by botrytis (high temperatures denature laccase).
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16
Q

What is a cap?

A

In a tank of fermenting must, the grape skins rise to the top of the liquid and remain there, buoyed by carbon dioxide.

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17
Q

What are the reasons why cap management is important?

A
  • Increase colour, aromas and tannin; without mixing the juice and the cap, very little of the liquid will macerate in the skins; the juice will lack flavour, colour and tannin.
  • Reduction of faults; a dry cap will allow bactertia to convert alcohol to acetic acid (volatile acidity). The aeration of the must will avoid reductive sulfur compounds.
  • Heat distribution Essential for temperature control during fermenation.
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18
Q

What are the choices a winemaker must make in regard to cap management?

A
  1. The method of cap management; pumping over, punching down etc
  2. The frequency of the mixing and the duration
  3. The timing of the mixing with fermentation
  4. The temperature of fermentation
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19
Q

How does the timing of cap management techniques influence the style of the wine?

A

The timing of the mixing within the fermentation can influence what compounds are extracted.

For example, more mixing at the start of fermentation with less mixing at the end will extract more colour and less tannin, whereas mixing more at the end of the fermentation will extract a greater amount of tannin.

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20
Q

How does temperature during fermentation influence a winemaker’s decisions in cap management?

A

Warmer fermentations will extract more than cooler fermentations. With temperature-controlled vessels, temperature during different stages of fermentation can be adjusted. Therefore, tannin extraction can be reduced by cooling the wine near the end of the fermentation at the time when tannins are most likely to be extracted.

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21
Q

What is punching down?

A

A cap management technique

A plunger is used to submerge the cap of grape skins in the liquid. This can either be carried out by hand (labour invensive) or by a mechanised plunger.

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22
Q

What is another common term for punching down?

A

Pigeage

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23
Q

What is pigeage?

A

The french term for punching down

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24
Q

What is the main disadvantage of punching down?

A

Labour intensive

It is only physically possible to punch down the cap manually and ensure adequate mixing of the skins in relatively small, open top vessels

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25
Q

What is pumping over?

A

A cap management technique

The juice/wine is taken from near the bottom of the vessel and sprayed over the cap of skins. Usually around one-third to one-half of the liquid in the vessel is pumped and sprayed over. The liquid extracts colour, tannins and flavours from the cap of skins as it passes through.

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26
Q

True or false.

Pumping over is a gentle method of extraction.

A

True

Pumping over is a gentle extraction method and is usually used alongside some punching down or rack and return.

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27
Q

Why would a winemaker choose to pump over aerobically?

A

This exposes the must to oxygen, which can be beneficial for yeast health and avoidance of reductive off-flavours such as rotten eggs.

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28
Q

Is pumping over an aerobic or unaerobic process?

A

Either, depending on the winemakers choice.

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29
Q

How would a winemaker pump over unaerobically?

A

By using closed vessels by attaching the hose to a tap at the top of the vessel or simply by keeping the hose close to the cap of skins in an open vessel.

30
Q
A
31
Q

What is the main advantage of pumping over?

A

Modern wineries have pumps and hoses installed at each tank, and pump-overs can be pre-programmed to occur at certain times and for certain durations, reducing the need for labour.

32
Q

What is another common term for pumping over?

A

Remontage

33
Q

What is remontage?

A

The french term for pumping over

34
Q

What is the rack-and-return method?

A

A cap management technique

The juice is pumped from one vessel into another vessel. As the juice is being pumped out of the vessel, the cap of skins
falls down the vessel. The juice is then pumped from the new vessel in through the top of the original vessel and is sprayed over the skins.

35
Q

What are the advantages of the rack-and-return technique?

A

It breaks up the cap and mixes the juice and skins thoroughly. It is more extractive than pumping over or punching down.
Therefore, it is only used 1-3 times during fermentation alongside pumping over and punching down.

36
Q

What are the disadvantages of the rack-and-return technique?

A

Rack and return cannot be fully automated and requires labour to set up and monitor the process.
It also requires a clean vessel to be available, which can be an issue in wineries that are operating at peak capacity.

37
Q

What red wines is the rack-and-return technique used for?

A

It is most commonly used for red wines where medium to high levels of flavour, colour and tannin are desired (e.g. Cabernet Sauvignon- or Syrah-based wines).

38
Q

What is another common term for rack-and-return?

A

Delestage

39
Q

What is delestage?

A

The french term for rack-and-return.

40
Q

What are Ganimede tanks?

A

Used for cap management.

Specialised tanks that bubble CO2 up through the must/wine. Pressure builds up under the cap, until finally the cap bursts.

41
Q

What are the advantages of Ganimede tanks?

A
  • Relatively extractive and suited to producing wines with medium-high levels of colour, tannin and aromas.
  • Can be fully automated and is therefore less labour intensive than rack and return
  • Oxygen can be used instead of carbon dioxide if oxygen exposure is desired.
42
Q

What are the disadvantages of Ganimede tanks?

A

These specialised tanks are slightly more expensive than standard stainless steel tanks.

43
Q

What are rotary fermenters?

A

Horizontal, closed, stainless steel tanks used for cap management.

The whole tank rotates and internal blades break up the cap and ensure adequate mixing. The horizontal orientation of the tank increases the surface area between the grape skins and the juice.

44
Q

What are the advantages of using rotary fermenters for cap management?

A
  • Effective at extracting, suited to the production of wines with high levels of tannin, aroma and flavour
  • The tank can be programmed to rotate at certain times and for a certain amount of time, so labour requirements are low.
45
Q

What are the disadvantages of rotary fermenters for cap management?

A
  • These tanks are relatively expensive compared to standard stainless steel tanks and therefore large volumes of wine need to be fermented in them to make them cost effective.
  • Usually used for high volume production only, as the producers of premium wines prefer more gentle and precise extraction.
46
Q

What are the five most common cap management techniques?

A
  • Punching down; pigeage
  • Pumping over; remontage
  • Rack-and-return; delestage
  • Ganimede tanks
  • Rotary fermenters
47
Q

What are two ways to increase colour, flavour and technique in addition to cap management techniques?

During fermentation

A
  • Must concentration
  • Co-Fermentation
48
Q

What are the disadvantages of concentrating must?

A

Lowers the volume of red wine that will be made from a set weight of grapes, which has implications for the price of the wine.

However, the juice that is removed is commonly used for rosé (Saignée).

49
Q

At what stage is juice drawn off to concentrate the must in red winemaking?

A

Just after crushing and before the start of the ferment.

50
Q

What is co-fermentation?

A

The process of fermenting different grape varieties together
in the same vessel. The term most commonly refers to the practice of fermenting a small proportion of white grapes (typically up to 5 per cent) within a red wine fermentation.

51
Q

Why might a winemaker choose to co-ferment white grapes within a red wine fermentation?

A
  • To take advantage of some of the phenolic compounds found in white grape varieties that can increase colour intensity and stability through binding with anthocyanins.
  • The white grapes can also contribute aroma compounds (e.g. the terpenes in Viognier give floral and fruity characteristics).
52
Q

What is the main disadvantage of co-fermentation? (White grapes in red wine fermentation).

A

Research into this area shows mixed results, and adding too much of the white grape variety can lead to dilution, and hence lower colour intensity.

53
Q

In what region did co-fermentation originate?

A

The Rhone Valley

The côte rotie appellation is particularly famous for Syrah, Viognier fermentations.

54
Q

What is the difference between whole-berry and whole-bunch?

A

Whole bunch; grapes that are uncrushed and still attached to the stems
Whole berry; uncrushed grapes, destemmed

55
Q

What is the objective of whole berry/bunch fermentations? What are the outcomes?

A

To create an oxygen-free environment for the uncrushed fruit.

  • The grapes change from aerobic respiration to anaerobic metabolism. Intracellular fermentation occurs.
  • Malic acid is broken down to create ethanol; reducing malic acids by up to 50%, lowering total acidity and increasing PH.
  • Glycerol levels increase and contribute unique aromas (kirsch, banana, bubble gum and cinnamon)
56
Q

What are the three forms of whole berry/whole bunch fermentation?

A
  • Carbonic maceration
  • Semi-carbonic maceration
  • Whole berries/bunches with uncrushed fruit
57
Q

What is intracellular fermentation?

A

The conversion of sugar into alcohol within a grape in an anaerobic environment (whole bunch/whole berry fermentation).

This fermentation is mediated by enzymes naturally present in the grapes and does not require yeast or bacteria. Once the alcohol level inside of the berries reaches 2%, the enzymes are denatured, and the fermentation stops.

58
Q

Outline the process of carbonic maceration.

A
  • Whole bunches are placed into vessels that are filled with CO2 to remove all the oxygen. This causes the onset of intracellular fermentation, producing about 2% of alcohol by volume.
  • Either the grapes are crushed in the normal way or the grape skins start to split and the grapes release their juice.
  • Normal fermentation commences.
  • The juice is generally drained immediately (no further maceration on the skins), and the grapes are pressed at this stage to separate the juice from the skins.
  • The free run juice and press juice are typically blended.
  • Yeast then complete the fermentation off the skins.
59
Q

What style of wine does carbonic maceration produce?

A

The resulting wines typically have low tannins with distinctive notes from intracellular fermentation (kirsch, banana, bubblegum, cinnamon) alongside the fruit notes from the grape variety.

60
Q

Outline the process of semi-carbonic maceration.

A
  • The vessel is filled with whole bunches. (NO CO2)
  • The grapes at the bottom of the vessel are crushed under the weight of the grapes above and some juice is released.
  • Ambient yeast start to ferment the juice (cultured yeast can also be added).
  • This fermentation produces CO2, which fills the vessel and the remaining intact grapes undergo carbonic maceration.
  • As the intact grapes begin to split and release their juice, the grapes are pressed and the yeast complete the fermentation off the skins.
61
Q

How might a winemaker produce a wine with more concentration, body and tannin when using semi-carbonic maceration?

A
  • After semi-carbonic maceration, alcoholic fermentation may continue on the skins, with some punching down/pumping over.
  • Fermentation may be followed by post-fermentation maceration and/or maturation in oak to add complexity.
  • This method leads to better integration of intracellular flavours.
62
Q

Outline the process of whole berries/bunches with crushed fruit.

A
  • Whole berries/bunches are submerged in uncrushed fruit, creating an anaerobic environment; causing intracellular fermentation.
  • The whole berries/bunches are progessively crushed as the cap is punched down.
  • Post-fermentation maceration and/or oak maturation can follow.
63
Q

What are the typical fermentation temperatures for a fruity, low tannin red wine?

A

Around 20°C

64
Q

What are the typical fermentation temperatures for wines with higher concentration and tannin structure?

A

Around 30°C

65
Q

What influences a winemakers decision in what fermentation vessel to use for red wines?

A
  • Temperature control; stainless steel and concrete can be better temperature controlled.
  • Aromas; stainless steel and concrete will retain fruit flavours, whereas oak barrels will lead to better integration of oak flavours during maturation (and better mouthfeel).
  • Cost; using oak barrels for fermentation is labour intensive, whereas stainless steel and concrete are cheaper options.
66
Q

What are the aims of post-fermentation maceration?

A
  • To further extract tannins and encourage the polymerisation of tannins, with the aim of improving tannin structure and texture and the wine’s ageing potential.
67
Q

What is post-fermentation maceration?

A

Leaving the wine macerating on the grape skins for a period of time (from a few days to a few weeks) after fermentation

68
Q

Outline the pressing process for red wines.

A
  • The free run juice is drained from the fermentation vessel, followed by the mass of grape skins.
  • The skins are pressed (typically in batches)
  • Press and free run juice is typically blended for higher concentration and complexity.
  • The timing of pressing depends on the style being made and additional practices (eg post-fermentation maceration, barrel fermentation etc).
69
Q

True or false.

Malolactic conversion is rarely carried out for red wines.

A

False.
MLF is routinely carried out for red wines.

70
Q

How might a winemaker ensure oak flavours will better integrate in red wine production?

A

Fermentation and MLF can be carried out entirely, or partially in oak barrels.

71
Q

What is the main disadvanage of lees ageing in red wines?

A

Reduced colour intensity

Wine Production (22 decks)

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