18- Post-war central and eastern Europe (repression... 1968-89) Flashcards
1
Q
Give an overview of what happened in the states of eastern and central Europe from 1968 to 1989
A
- From 1968 until 1980, the states of eastern and central Europe accepted their communist governments and Soviet control; there were no more rebellions.
- However, resistance and resentment did not go away. The states remained under communist one-party control with different degrees of oppression.
- The economies of each country failed to flourish, and in countries such as Poland, reached crisis point in the 1980s.
- In 1989 the governments finally started to collapse; though the specific reasons for collapse differed in each country, the impact of Gorbachev’s reforms were to prove crucial in how events unfolded.
2
Q
What happened in Poland in 1956 and 1968 and how did this carry through to the future?
A
- Political agitation had already taken place in Poland - in 1956 and in 1968.
- In both cases the unrest had been stopped by the party without Soviet intervention.
- However, the underlying economic and social forces that had caused the unrest had not been addressed.
3
Q
Describe the reasons and effects of the strikes in Gdansk in 1970
A
- In 1970, the government’s decision to increase food prices by 20 per cent led to strikes in the shipyards of the port of Gdansk.
- At least 50 people were killed as the security forces restored order and the crisis led to Gomulka’s resignation and his replacement by Edward Gierek.
4
Q
Describe how opposition grew in Poland in the 1970s and what this led to
A
- Unrest continued throughout the 1970s as dissatisfaction with the PUWP grew.
- A new economic programme failed to deal with food shortages and new opposition forces developed, the most important of which was the Workers’ Defence Committee (KOR).
5
Q
How was the Polish church involved with Polish society?
A
- The Polish church remained a dominant force in Polish society and Catholics received an enormous boost when a Polish Cardinal became the new Pope - John Paul II.
- When the Pope visited Poland in 1979, Poles enthusiastically showed their commitment to the church rather than to Marxism.
6
Q
What does John Lewis Gaddis think about Poles’ attitudes towards the Pope John Paul II?
A
ohn Lewis Gaddis writes ‘When John Paul II kissed the ground at the Warsaw airport on June 2, 1979, he began a process by which Communism in Poland - and ultimately everywhere else in Europe - would come to an end.’
7
Q
Describe the state of Poland’s government by 1980
A
It was in a very weak position; Gierek’s authority had been weakened by both the Pope’s visit and by the economic crisis.
8
Q
Describe the state of Poland’s economy by 1980
A
Due to having taken out loans from the West after 1968 Poland was now in debt to the West by $25 billion and goods needed to be exported to bring in hard currency; this further increased shortages at home.
9
Q
What did Poland’s economic crisis in 1980 lead to?
A
Due to having taken out loans from the West after 1968 Poland was now in debt to the West by $25 billion and goods needed to be exported to bring in hard currency; this further increased shortages at home.
10
Q
More info on solidarity needed?
A
11
Q
What were the origins of ‘Solidarity’?
A
- They thought it would remove power from the authorities
- Polish economy in crisis- shortages everywhere
- Country burdened by foreign debt
- Workers at Gdansk shipyard had an illegal strike
- What began as an economic protest turned into a demand for sweeping political concessions (evolution into a political protest)
- Gave people an identity
12
Q
Why was Solidarity such a threat to the Polish government and to the Soviets?
A
- It fundamentally undermined the ideology of Eastern European and Soviet dominated socialism in which workers and their practices were controlled by the state
- It quickly evolved into a political organisation campaigning not just for improved workers’ conditions but also freedom of speech and more freedom in religion
- It was supported by both Polish intellectuals and the Catholic Church of Poland
- It provided a channel through which Polish national consciousness could be expressed
13
Q
How did the Soviets feel about ‘Solidarity’?
A
- The Kremlin wanted to end Solidarity
- The Soviets were tightening the screws on the Poles
14
Q
What did Jaruzelski declare in 1981 in Poland and what did thie lead to?
A
General Jaruzelski declared martial law in 1981 and declared a state of emergency; Solidarity was banned and Walsea and many other members of Solidarity were imprisoned.
15
Q
How did ‘Solidarity’ continue even after it was banned in 1981? (previous flashcard)
A
While communist rule, backed up with Soviet support survived, dissent simmered beneath the surface; Solidarity continued to operate underground publishing hundreds of underground books and acting as an inspiration to radical reformers in other Eastern Bloc states.
16
Q
How did the Polish economy deteriorate in the 1980s?
A
- In 1986 the government defaulted on $1.4 billion of debt repayments to the West and the government failed to win enough support in a referendum in 1987 on introducing an austerity package.
- By 1989 Poland’s economy had entered another crisis.
- Its debt now stood at $56 billion while the cost of food had gone up by an average of 48% in 1988 which led to further strikes.
17
Q
What allowed ‘Solidarity’ to be successful?
A
18
Q
According to Judt, what factors contributed to the eventual downfall of the Communist rulers in Poland?
A
19
Q
What factors led to the collapse of Communist control in Poland?
A
- The Catholic Church
- Key personalities: Pope John Paul II and Walesa
- The role of ‘Solidarity’
- The economic situation
- Gorbachev’s refusal to intervene
20
Q
Give an overview of Kádár’s rule after 1956 and in the 60s and 70s
A
Kádár had shown some degree of flexibility in running Hungary after 1956 and some limited freedoms had been allowed in the 1960s and 1970s.
21
Q
Describe the political and economic system in Hungary between 1968 and 89
A
- Multi-candidate elections became compulsory from 1983, and in 1985 some independent Party candidates were voted into parliament.
- This relatively liberal system of government was known informally as ‘Goulash’ Communism.
- During the 1970s, the Kádár government relied increasingly on loans from Western banks to finance the material incentives that constituted an essential element of ‘Goulash communism’.
22
Q
Although there were some freedoms in Hungary after 1956 and there was a relatively liberal political system, there were still ___
A
Limits to these changes and many younger Party members were frustrated by the lack of economic reform.
23
Q
Info on positive/negative aspects of Kádár’s rule needed?
A
24
Q
What does Tony Judt say about the collapse of communism in Hungary in 1989?
A
‘It was a curiosity of the Hungarian exit from Communism that it was conducted by the Communists themselves..it was the only passage from a Communist regime to a genuine multi-party system effected entirely from within’’.
‘[the symbolic reburial of Nagy] was an admission of defeat, an acknowledgement that the Party and its leadership had lived and taught and imposed a lie’
25
When did communism collapse in Hungary?
1989
26
Why did domestic opposition emerge in Hungary in the mid 1980s?
- The poor economic situation
| - Inspiration from Gorbachev's reforms
27
Describe the opposition groups that were formed in Hungary in the 1980s
In September 1987 the Hungarian Democratic Forum (HDF) was formed, followed by the Allince of Young Democrats (FIDESZ) and other parties.
28
How did Kádár respond to the formation of opposition groups in Hungary in the 1980s and what did this lead to?
- Although Kádár had allowed some freedoms, he was unable to tolerate any kind of fundamental reform of the system and this attitude was no longer sustainable; it was clear that geneuine economic reform could not take place without political reform to accompany it.
- Thus, Kádár was removed and replaced by Karoly Grósz.
29
Who replaced Kádár?
Karoly Grósz
30
How did the political situation in Hungary change when Kádár was replaced by Grósz?
- A group of 'New' Communists in Hungary now pushed for economic and political reform.
- In March 1989, the Communists began talks with an alliance of opposition parties known as the Opposition Round Table.
31
What happened in Hungary in October 1989 and what did this lead to?
- The reformers within the Communist party triumphed at an Extraordinary Congress and the Party's name was changed to the Hungarian Socialist Party (HSP).
- However, the reformed communist party failed to convince the Hungarian population and in a referendum on the constitution held in November the HSP did badly.
32
What happened in the parliamentary elections of March and April 1990 in Hungary?
- Following the parliamentary elections of March and April 1990, which were the first completely free parliamentary elections in the Eastern bloc, the HSP secured only 8 per cent of the vote.
- The HDF in coalition with two other parties then established the first non-communist government since the 1940s.
33
The building of the Berlin Wall succeeded in ___
Keeping in the East Germany population and allowed the country to achieve more economic and political stability.
34
Describe Honecker's rule and his attitude towards the Berlin Wall
- Honecker, who replaced Ulbricht in 1971 with the support of Brezhnev, was also a hardliner who continued to strengthen the border between both Wast and East Germany and between West and East Berlin.
- Anyone attempting to cross to the West could be shot; during Honecker's time in office around 125 East Germans were killed while trying to reach the West.
35
What was Honecker's goal and how did this differ from that of the leadership's? (clarify?)
- Whereas the leadership's stated objective had been a reunified Germany under socialist leadership, the goal was now one of 'separate development' (Argrenzung) which reflected more accurately the actual political situation.
- He also moved towards normalising relations with West Germany.
36
Describe the signing of the Four Power Agreement in 1971 (GDR)
This reaffirmed the special status of Berlin and new trade and travel arrangements between West Germany and Berlin.
37
What events took place in East Germany in 1972 and 73 and what was the significance of these?
- In 1972 the Basic Treaty was signed between the two Germanies; they now recognised each other's sovereignty and equal status.
- In 1973, in what is considered as one of Honecker's greatest political successes, both East and West Germany joined the United Nations as separate nations.
38
What developments were made in the relations between East and West Germany in 1984?
- Improved relations continued when the mines along the borders between the GDR and the FRG were removed.
- His achievements in this area were welcome to many ordinary Germans because divided families were now more easily able to make contact.
39
What economic changes took place under Honecker's leaderhip?
East Germany adopted a programme of 'consumer socialism' which led to an improvement in living standards; more emphasis was placed on consumer goods and more attention paid to development of housing.
40
What social changes took place under Honecker's leaderhip?
The standard of living in East Germany was higher than in other countries in the Warsaw pact and the regime derived much prestige from its success in the Olympic Games.
41
What did the economic and social developments that took place under Honecker's leadership allow him to believe?
They allowed Honecker to believe that he was secure and would not face threats to his power when Gorbachev started his political and economic reforms and when unrest started elsewhere in Eastern Europe.
42
Despite Honecker's optimism regarding his position in East Germany, there were ___
Many reasons for public discontent
43
What reasons were there for public discontent in East Germany under Honecker's leadership?
- Despite the improved economic conditions in East Germany it was increasingly difficult to disguise the disparity between East and West Germany in living standards.
- The Party's elite became increasingly associated with corruption and incompetence.
- The Stasi remained ever vigilant and no political dissent was allowed; the SED remained firmly in power.
- Most signficantly, Honecker was determined not to consider any programme on the lines of perestroika or glasnost.
44
Who had created the Berlin Wall?
Khrushchev
45
When did communism collapse in East Germany?
November 1989
46
Why did Communist rule collapse in East Germany?
- By 1989, there were serious undercurrents of unrest emerging and events in Hungary acted as a catalyst to this situation when 25,000 East Germans supposedly 'holidaying' in Hungary succeeded in crossing the border into Austria.
- Honecker was very worried about events taking place in Poland and Hungary and the fact that the Soviet Union was failing to intervene.
47
What does Tony Judt believe about the German uprising of 1989?
'The German uprising of 1989 ..was perhaps the only truly popular - i.e. mass - revolution of that year'
48
Describe the political situation in East Germany after the fall of the Berlin Wall
- After the Berlin Wall fell, the clause declaring that the GDR was ‘led by the working class and its Marxist-Leninist party’ was voted by the SED to be removed.
- Four days later, the Politburo resigned, the old Communist leadership was expelled from the party, round table discussions began and free elections were scheduled.
49
When was the first democatically-elected GDR government formed and what was the significance of this?
- 9 April ___
- However, it would also be the last as now there was a push for reunification with West Germany which would take place in October 1990.
50
What changes took place in Czechoslovakia after the crushing of the Prague Spring?
- Dubček was replaced by Gustáv Husák who followed a policy of 'normalisation'.
- This meant a period of repression; intellectuals and writers had to repudiate the events of the Prague Spring in order to be published and the secret police, the StB, was active in watching for any sign of dissent.
- It also meant that there was no more innovation in the economy which stagnated.
51
When were the Helsinki Accords signed?
1975
52
How did the Helsinkin Accords change the situation within Czechoslovakia?
- In the Helsinki Agreement, signed between the West and the USSR, the USSR agreed to respect human rights and freedoms, such as freedom of thought, conscience, or religion, and freedom of travel.
- This acted as a catalyst for the emergence of a protest movement.
- In Czechoslovakia, as well as in other east European countries, 'Helsinki Groups' emerged dedicated to holding their governments accountable on human rights issues.
53
Why was there a feeling of frustration in Czechoslovakia (including with the West)?
Reluctant acceptance, a sense that opposition was futile.
-Lack of intervention by the west.
54
Why did the Helsinki Accords provide a degree of encouragement?
- Despite not internationally binding as a treaty the focus on human rights gave hope to Czech opposition who felt it gave them a legal basis for their actions, a glimmer of hope and forced the Soviets to think about what form any future invention would look like.
- Individuals like Butora and student activitists became the core who rebelled in November 1989.
55
What happened to many people who played an active role in the 1968 rising?
- Activists were removed from political power.
- Radical elements are 'normalised' and dissidents reach a degree of agreement, as he puts it "a meeting with reality" meetings and discussion groups charaterise litrerary opposition after 1968.
56
What was Charter 77?
- One prominent group was Charter 77.
- Inspired by the Polish group KOR it was set up by a group of over 200 Czechoslovak intellectuals including writer Václav Havel.
- Charter 77 issued a charter demanding that the Helsinki Accords and the United Declaration of Human Rights be fully implemented in Czechoslovakia.
57
How was te opposition in Czechoslovakia different from that in Poland?
- Unlike Poland, such dissent (Charter 77) remained amongst the intellectual elite; the working class remained passive supporters of the regime - and this was mainly because the economic situation ensured reasonable living standards for workers (despite its industry being outdated an uncompetitive).
- Nevertheless, the new organisations such as Charter 77 received widespread publicity within the West.
58
What was another source of moral opposition in Czechoslovakia (other than Charter 77)?
The Catholic Church, which was becoming more powerful again by the 1980s.
59
Describe the fall of Husák as the leader of Czechoslovakia?
Husák had no intention of following Gorbachev's lead in carrying out reforms. In 1987 he was replaced by Miloš Jakeš.
60
What did Gorbachev write in his telegram to Jakeš when he replaced Husák? (don't need to know by heart)
“We are confident that the Central Committee under your leadership will ensure the fulfillment of wide-scale tasks facing the party in the field of the further development and renewal of socialism on Czechoslovak soil, the restructuring of the economic mechanism, the democratization of the public and political life of the country.”
61
How did Jakeš' plans differ from those that Gorbachev expected of him when he first replaced Husák?
Jakeš was unwilling to implement such reforms (previous flashcard)
62
Describe the growth in opposition in Czechoslovakia in the 1980s
- Without Gorbachev's support and the threat of Soviet intervention, and and with the economic situation deteriorating, dissident opposition started to grow.
- The 20th anniversary of the Prague Spring in 1988 was marked by student demonstrations in Prague involving up to 10,000 protesters thus suggesting that opposition was growing beyond the intellectual circles of Charter 77.
- Protests continued into 1989 when Havel was also arrested.
- Once Gorbachev had made it clear that he would not repeat the repression of 1968, it was only a matter of time before the communist government collapsed.
63
How did events in the GDR affect those in Czechoslovakia?
Events in the GDR further radicalised opposition; the fleeing of thousands of East Germans to the West German embassy in Prague in order to escape, and then the fall of the Berlin Wall acted as a flashpoint.
64
What involvement did the Civic Forum have in the protests in Czechoslovakia in the late 1980s?
Protests were co-ordinated by Civic Forum, a new group that was established to coordinate opposition activities.
65
What factors led to the final collapse of the Communist government in Czechoslovakia?
- Lack of support from Gorbachev and the threat of Soviet intervention
- The economic situation was deteriorating
- Events in the GDR further radicalized opposition; the fleeing of thousands of East Germans to the West German embassy in Prague to escape, and then the fall of the Berlin Wall, acted as a flash-point.
66
Describe the political changes that took place in Czechoslovakia at the end of 1989
- A new coalition government, mostly consisting of non-communists, was announced on 3 December 1989.
- The key moment came on 29 December 1989 when Husák was replaced by Havel as President of Czechoslovakia by a unanimous vote in parliament.
- Havel gave amnesty to 16,000 political prisoners on 1st January 1990; the old regime was clearly over.
67
Describe the political situation in Czechoslovakia after the communist regime was over
- Democratic parliamentary elections were held in June 1990 and Civic Forum won most of the seats, though as it was only a coalition of different interest groups it soon split up into five parties.
- Then, in 1992, the country split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
68
When did the 'Velvet Revolution' take place in Czechoslovakia?
November-December 1989
69
Why did the Helsinki Accords provide a degree of encouragement?
- Part of the agreement was about human rights - provided a certain legal basis for challenging the authorities
- Made people realize that they don’t need support from the west to do something
- Reinforced the idea that the people neede to do something themselves
- Led to ‘Charter 77’
70
More info needed on 'Velvet Revolution'?
71
When did Zhivkov rule Bulgaria?
Between 1954 and his fall from power in 1989.
72
Why did Zhivkov rule Bulgaria for so long?
- This long rule was possible due to his tight control of domestic and foreign policy, his support from the Soviet Union and his eradication of all domestic opposition.
- Also key was the fact that, for a long time, his economic policies were successful.
73
How did the economic situation in Bulgaria led to the end of Zhivkov's rule in 1989?
- In 1987, Zhivkov responded to an economic downturn and also to developments in the Soviet Union by announcing the 'July Concept' - promising liberal reforms.
- Economic growth had fallen from over 5 per cent in 1986 to 0.4 per cent in 1989, while foreign debts mounted.
- However, while some economic restructuring took place (as with perestroika in the Soviet Union) there was no attempt to allow any 'glasnost' or openness and the government argued that there could be no attack on the principles of Socialism.
74
What other reasons led to the end of Zhivkov's rule in 1989?
- In 1989, inspired by events elsewhere in Eastern Europe a reform demonstration took place in Sofia but was broken up.
- Zhivkov was already facing a scandal due to his Turkish policy which had led to 300,000 Bulgarian Turks crossing to Turkey.
75
Describe the anti-Zhivkov conspiracy that led to the end of his rule
- With the regime looking increasingly unstable, an anti-Zhivkov conspiracy in the Party hierarchy developed.
- This was supported by the military and the day after the Berlin Wall fell, the Central Committee deposed Zhivkov.
76
How can the collapse of Zhivkov be characterized?
- It was due to the Party itself rather than from popular opposition.
- In fact popular participation developed only after the coup.
- (The Communists renamed themselves as the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP) and opposition groups established themselves under the umbrella of the Union of Democratic Forces (UDF)).
77
Describe Ceaucescu and Romania's relationship with other Communist countries
- Romania under Nicolae Ceaușescu followed an independent line with regard to relations with Moscow.
- Romania's independence was shown in its good relations with China and Yugoslavia and in 1968, it condemned the invasion of Czechoslovakia and continued to limit its role in both COMECON and the Warsaw Pact.
78
Describe Ceaucescu and Romania's relationship with the West and what this led to
- Ceaușescu also had good relations with the West; indeed the West saw Romania as a country where they could secure some influence and so made great efforts to court Ceaușescu.
- As a result, Ceaușescu joined the IMF and the World Bank and got preferential trading status with the European Community.
- Thus ironically, while Ceaușescu was one of the most repressive rulers of the eastern and central states, he was also the one that the West favoured the most.
79
How were ordinary Romanians treated under Ceaucescu's rule?
- An independent line was not shown in the treatment of ordinary Romanians where tight communist control was maintained.
- Ceaușescu developed a strong personality cult and nepotism was rife within the party.
- His wife was very powerful and by the late 1970s four members of Ceaușescu's family were on the Party Central Committee.
- Despite the introduction of multi-party elections to parliament in 1974, the reality was a growing personal dictatorship.
80
Describe the economic and political situation in Romania under Ceaucescu
- Economic development was slow with chronic food shortages.
- National groups such as the 1.6 Hungarians within Romania suffered even more due to a programe of 'Romanisation' which aimed to weaken their national identity; the autonomous Hungarian region of Romania suffered the lowest economic development in the country.
81
What elements of life in Romania led to the communism in 1989>
- Austerity and economic stagnation and decline both economically, socially, and politically
- The cultivation of communism, especially where progress failed. Seen by the West as a possible buffer to Soviets (Buffer against Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe)
- Repressive secrete police (Securitate); personality cult
- Social engineering in the form of ‘systemization’
- Theatre and spectacle
- ‘The collapse of belief in socialist ideology, and the abandonment by the early 1980s of any convincing hope of surpassing the West economically, left the Party with little general purpose’ Mazower p. 375- explains why events in December 1989 were so violent (if you’ve been made to live like this for decades’.
82
Why did Romanians support Ceaucescu?
Patriotism and nationalism that was encouraged through performances and propaganda
83
Characteristics of Ceaucescu's regime
- Mass demonstrations combined with performing arts (a new form of political theater)
- There were strict rules that people like journalists had to follow
- The secret police
- Ceausescu wanted to prove that Romanian agriculture was bigger and better than that of the Soviets, so statistics about the economy were manipulated
- People were forced into compliance with the threat of harsh punishment e.g. docking of wages, loss of jobs
- High levels of censorship and press control
- In the early years, people supported him because of his defiance of Moscow
- Able to sit his regime between Moscow and the West
84
How did the control that Ceaucescu had over Romanians impact the rate of change in the country?
- The stranglehold which Ceaușescu held over the country meant that change was slower to take place.
- Any opposition was quickly and brutally suppressed.
85
Describe the opposition in Romania that took place in 1987
- In 1987 a secret 'National Salvation Front' organisation circulated a document calling for Ceaușescu's removal.
- In December 1987, following Ceaușescu's re-election as head of the Party, the authorities tried to deport a popular Hungarian priest, László Tőkés; this was an attempt to deal with the thousands of Hungarians who were fleeing into Hungary.
- In response, Romanians and Hungarians demonstrated; 71 were killed.
- A state of emergency was declared in Timosoara.
86
What did László Tőkés attempt to regain control and rally support and what did this lead to?
- He convened a rally in Bucharest.
| - However, the crowd turned against Ceaușescu.
87
More info needed on the fall of communism in Romania?
88
What does Gaddis believe about the end of communism in central and eastern Europe?
'[the countries of central and eastern Europe were] 'a sandpile ready to slide'
89
In the space of ___, all the countries of the Eastern Bloc had undergone major political changes.
A few months
90
Explain how the 'domino effect' can explain why communist governments collapsed so easily and so quickly in 1989
Once one country had fallen it was difficult for the governments of other countries to maintain their credibility and their argument that they were the logical product of a historical process.
91
Why did the collapse of communism take place so quickly?
- This was largely due to the impact of communications media; the people of eastern and central Europe were watching events unfold on television and this inspired them further.
- Judt writes: 'Communism's crucial asset, its control and monopoly of information was lost'.
92
Why were the revolutions (fall of communism), other than in Romania, so peaceful?
- Judt argues that the revolutionaries of 1989 had 'a distaste for violence'.
- The people who challenged the communists were a mix of reform Communists, social democrats, liberal intellectuals, free-market economists, Catholic activities, trade unionists and many others; this variety of opposition gave them a strength.
- The Communist governments began to see the impossibility of holding onto power as slim - even if they used force.
93
Gaddis view on reasons for fall of communism
94
How were Gorbachev's actions important in allowing the fall of communism? (develop?)
Gorbachev's actions remain key for allowing them to happen, and for ensuring that there was no bloodshed.
95
What does Judt write about Gorbachev and Moscow's roles in the collapse of communism?
'By indicating that he would not intervene he decisively undermined the only real source of political legitimacy available to the rulers of the satellite states: the promise (or threat) of military intervention from Moscow. Without the threat the local regimes were politically naked.'
96
What does Gaddis write about Gorbachev and Moscow's roles in the collapse of communism?
'Gorbachev ensured that the great 1989 revolution was the first one ever in which almost no blood was shed...In both its ends and its means, then, this revolution became a triumph of hope. It did so chiefly because Mikhail Gorbachev chose not to act, but rather to be acted upon.
97
Factors that led to the collapse of communism (this was different in each country)
- Influence of economic and political reform in the USSR
- Awareness of what was happening in other countries
- The ending of the Brezhnev Doctrine - withdrawal of Soviet support
- Poor economy
- Reformist groups within the Communist Party
- Growing popular dissatisfaction- growth of opposition groups
