18 Biodiveristy Flashcards
Define biological, morphological and ecological species concept
B= Organisms that share the same sequence of bases in DNA mol and sequence of AA in proteins
M= comparing similarities in anatomy, physical features or organism e.g beak size and reproduce to form fertile offspring, repro isolated from other species
E= A group of individuals that occuroy the same niche at the same time/same habitat
Dirty kinky people can often find good sex
Taxonomic hierarchy + defintion of it
- Domain
- Kingdom
- Phylum
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species
- Unit classification that indicates level of organism in the classification
Define hierarchial ss
- Larger groups contain smaller groups, w/no overlap between groups
3 main domains
- Archae
- Bacteria
- Eukarya/Eukaroyotes
Bacteria vs animal cell
Bac:
* No memb mound organelle
* Cell wall (peptidoglycan)
* Circlar chromosome
* Plasmid
* 70s ribosomes
Animal:
* memb bound organelles
* No cell wall
* linear chromosomes
* No plasmids
* 80s and 70s ribosomes
Biodiveristy in 3 levels
- Diveristy of ecossytem in a region
- Total number of species + relative abundance living in a defined area/ecoss
- Genetic variation exisiting within pop of each species + Genetic diveristy between species
Membrane lipids of archae vs bacteria
- Archae= branched, hydrocarbon chains bonded to glycerol by ether linkages
- Bacteria= Unbranched, Hydrocarbon chains bonded to glycerol by ester linkages
Ribosomal RNA of archae vs bacteria
Archae=
* 70s ribosome, smaller subunit so more similair to subunit of eukaroyotic ribosome,
* base squence of rRNA more similiar to rRNA of eukaryote,
* primary ss of ribosome protein more similair to ribosome of eukaroyote
cell wall in archae vs bacteria
- Archae= Not peptidoglycan cell wall
- Bacteria= peptidoglycan cell wall
Features of kingdom 1: Protoctista (7)
- Cell are eukaryotic (nucleus, memb bound organelles
- Linear choromsomes w/ histone proteins
- 80s ribosomes
- Some are protozoa: have animal like cells w no CW
- Some are like algae: have plant like cells (Cellulose CW + chloroplasts)
- E.g algae, protozoa
- 10um
Features of kingdom 2: Fungi (8)
- Heterotrophe
- No cillia/flagella= not motile
- None contain chlorophyll so no photosynth
- most multicellular + made of hyphae OR unicellular to produce spores
- Eukaryotic cells
- Chitin cell walls
- e.g yeast, mold, mushroom
- 50um
Features of kingdom 3: Plantae (8)
- Multicellular + diffrentiated into tissue
- Motile e.g motile gametes in ferns due to flagella
- Autotrophic nutrition
- Cellulose cell wall
- Eukaryotic cells
- Large permanent vacuole for support
- e.g mosses, ferns, flowering plants
- 200um
Features of kingdom 4: Animalia (9)
- Multiceullar + diffrentiated into tissues/organs
- Eukaroytic cells w/ specialized cells
- Motile cells have cillia and flagella
- No cell walls + chloroplasts
- cell vacuoles are small/temporary
- Heterotrophic nutrition
- Communicates by nervous ss
- e.g worms, tigers, humans
- 400um
Features of domain eukarya/eukaryote
- Cell w/ a nucleus
- contains memb bound organelles
- DNA in linear chrosomes w/ histone proteins
- 80s ribosome in cytosol
- chloroplasts/mitochondria have 70s ribosome + those have circular DNA like prokaryotes
- No plasmid
- unicellular, colonial, multicellular organisms
- Reproduce asexually/sexually
- Cells divide by mitosis
- Plants= cellulose cell wall, No cell walls in animalia , chitin cell wall in fungi
Features of domain Archae (8)
- unicellular prokaryote
- plasmid present
- no memb bound organelle
- circular chromosomes w/ histone proteins
- 70s ribosomes but smaller than eukaryotic cells
- cell wall present- not peptidoglycan
- cells divide by binary fission
- single cells/small groups of cells
Features of domain: Bacteria
- No nucleus
- no memb bound organelle e.g mitochondria
- 70s ribosomes only
- peptiodoglycan/meurin cell wall
- reproduce by binary fission
- unicellular prokaryote
- circular chromsomes w/ NO histone proteins
- plasmid present
- Bacteria form spores whereas Archaea do not form spores ;
identify the eukaryotic organism type of nutrition
- Autotrophe= Protoctista + Plantae
- Hetereotrophe= Protoctista, Fungi and Animalia
Why arent viruses classed in one of the 3 domain ss
- Acellular (no cellular ss or metabolism)
- use host cells to copy their nucleuic acids to make their viral proteins + replicate
- energy needed for such processes is provided by resp in host cell
- cant reproduce w/o host cell
Taxonomic system for classifiying viruses
- based on disease they cause
- type of nucleic acid they contain (DNA- double stranded or RNA- single stranded)
-protein coat surrounding called caspid
Define term ecosystem and niche
Ecoss= The interaction between a self contained/self sustaining area and organisms/community, including biotic and abiotic factors
Niche= specific role/function of an organism/species in a habitat within an ecosystem, inclduing interactions w/ other organisms
importance of random sampling in determining the biodiversity of an area + when to do?
- to avoid bias in results
- calculate species diversity= species frequency + diversity
- when area looks uniform
- no clear pattern to the way species are distributed
- pick random sample sites by dividing field into grid using meausing tape +
- use random number generator to select coordinates
methods to assess the distribution/abundance or organisms in a local area
- frame quadrats
- line transects
- belt transect
- MRR
Describe using a belt transect
- place a quadrat at regualr intervals along the line/measuing tape
- record the abundance of each species within each quadrat
- produces quantitative data + plot as bar chart/kite diagram
Describe line transect
- Lay out a measuring tape in a straight line across the sample area
- At equal distances along the tape record the identity of the organisms that touch the line at set dist.
- produces qualitative data
describe quadrat
- Quadrats laid randomly in the area to avoid sampling bias
- quadrat laid on sample area= abundance of diff species recorded
Describe mark-release-recapture using the Lincoln index
- As many indivduals are caught/large samepl trapped so results are significant
- each individual marked w/ nail varnish so doesnt affect future chance of survival e.g visible to predator
- Marked individuals released to habitat to mix randomly in population
- After randomisation ocured, 2nd large sample captured using pitfall trap
- number of marked and unmarked individuals within the sample are counted
N = n1 x n2 / n3
* N = population estimate
* n1 = number of marked individuals released
* n2 = number of individuals in the second sample (marked and unmarked)
* n3 = number of marked individuals in the second sample
Simpsons index of diveristy
- measure of biodiversity between 0-1, according for species richness + species eveness
- the closer to 1 the index =more diverse habitat is
- high levels of species richness/eveness
Steps to calculate Simpsons index of diveristy
Step 1: The first step is to calculate (n ÷ N) for each species
Step 2: Square each of these values
Step 3: Add them together and subtract the total from 1
n= total number of individuals one 1 species
N= total number of organisms of all species
define species + speciation
Species= group of morphologically similair organisms, in terms of beahviour, biocehmical and physiological features, can intrebreed to produce fertile offspring + repro isolated from other species and occupy same niche
Speciation= formation of a new species from an exisiting species due via geographical isolation and reproductive isolation
How species become extinct due to: climate change
- combustion of fossil fuels increase conc of CO2 + methane in atmosphere = greenhouse gasses –> global warming + greenhouse effect
- increase in the mean global temperature
- Sea levels are rising
- Ocean temperatures and acidity are rising
- Ice caps are melting
- changed the habitats of some species, so much so that some are no longer able to survive in the new environmental conditions
How species become extinct due to: competition
- limited supply of resources within area
- competition for the same resource increases/occur
- e.g food, water, habitat and reproductive mates
- reduces the population size of a species
How species become extinct due to: hunting by humans
- meat humans consume comes from domesticated livestock like cattle, sheep and chicken
- Some humans in underdeveloped countries still have to hunt animals for survival
- poaching for ivory tusks/fur
Define biodiveristy
- diveristy of ecoss in a region
- number of diff species in each ecoss
- genetic diveristy within pop of each species
- Variation within species
suggest methods to conserve bengal tiger (14)
- stop killing
- education
- stop trade in Tiger parts
- zoo/national park
- captive, breeding, then release back into wild
- replant forest
- stop deforestation
- Assisted reproduction, e.g. IVF
- habitat protection
- ban, hunting/poaching
- Sperm banks
- breeding sites, protected
- Rangers patrol parks
- human access restricted
Suggest reasons for maintaining plant biodiveristy
- Medical uses e.g. medicine
- wood for building fires/fibre for clothes/food for humans/agriculture
- eco, tourism
- maintain gene pool /genetic diversity
- prevention of natural disasters
- aesthetic reason
- to maintain stability in food, chain/ecosystem
Suggest how human activities can cause an animal to become endangered
- Loss of habitat/deforestation
- building/industry/farming
- difficulty in finding food/increased competition
- poaching/hunting E.G Ivory trade
*
Explain what is meant by the term endangered species
- species threatened with extinction
- numbers below critical level/population too small
- too low numbers that reproduction is affected/not enough mates to reproduce with
What can cause an animal to go extinct?
- Reduction in number of prey/increased competition for food/ decrease in food
- increased distance to travel to find food
- loss/destruction of breeding sites
- human activity, E.G killing/building/pollution/agriculture
- disease
- increase in predators
- habitat destruction/deforestation
- species cant adapt fast enough
- climate change
- species at risk of extnictiom
How should seeds be stored in seed bank to ensure their viable?
- dried/kept cool
Suggest what other climatic factors apart from rainfall affect plant biodiversity
- Temperature
- light intensity
- humidity
- carbon dioxide conce
- wind
Explain what is meant by heterotrophic nutrition And give examples
- feeding on other organisms to obtain organic compounds
- animalia and fungi
Explain the benefits of maintaining biodiveristy
- Cultural/aesthetic reasons
- moral/ethical reasons/prevent extinction
- resource material, e.g. wood for building/fires for clothes/food for humans
- economic benefits
- eco, tourism
- medicinal use
- maintains food chains
- nutrients/mineral cycling
- climate stability
- maintains large, gene pool/genetic variation
- research/science
- local cultural sig
- pollination
- protect against soil erosion/flooding
Consider the squirrel populations on the North and South Rims of the Grand Canyon, which were separated by the formation of the canyon and subsequently evolved into distinct species: the Kaibab squirrel and the Abert’s squirrel.
- Isolating mechanism equals land barrier/geographical isolation
- allopath speciation
Explain how allopatric speciation occurs
- Geographical barriers
- barrier to gene flow (dont share genes cause cannot mate w/ each other)
- no interbreeding/reproductively isolated
- gene mutations, occur/new alleles
- different selection pressures
- natural selection
- change in allele frequency
- polyploidy (developed different chromosome numbers)
advanatages of captive, breeding programs for mammals
Advantages:
- monitor health of mother
- can monitor development of fetus
- storage of sperm/egg/gametes
- artificial insemination
- IVF
- use of surrogate, mothers
- genetic records, kept
- prevent extinction/used in restoring ecosystem
Describe the sampling technique that could be used to measure the distribution/abundance of organisms in a habitat (11)
- Random sampling
- use a quadrat
- cover scale
- estimate percentage cover
- species frequency
- systematic sampling
- sample at set distances using line/belt transact
- mark release recapture
- method of capture/marking e.g. nail varnish/trap
- return to habitat and left
- population estimate (Lincoln index
The way in which members of protista are similar to each other and ways in which they differ
Similarities:
- eukaryotic cells
- e.g nucleus, linear DNA, histone proteins, membrane bound, organelles/80s ribosomes
differences:
- colonial
- multicellular
- autotrophic, or heterotrophic
- motile, or not motile
- cell wall or no cell wall
Name, a species, plant or animal that is considered endangered and outlined the reasons that have caused it to become endangered
- black rhinos/tigers/snow leopard
- fall in numbers
- dangers of becoming extinct
- IUCN red list
- habitat destruction, e.g. trees cut wood for building/agriculture
- climate change
- rise in temperature
- increase in disease/predation
- decrease in food
- hunting/killing/poaching
- trade in ivory tusks or fur
- lack of human education
- disturbance, breeding
- predation
- comp for food/water space
- numbers so low pop cant recover
problems w invasive alien species
- Non-native species highly problematic = no natural competitors, predators/pathogens so no limit on population growth—-> massively increase in number
- large numbers of non-native species that occupy the same niche, pushing them to extinction as negatively affect the native species through competition + disease
method of IVF
1.IVF/mating
2.female given hormone/FSH
2.superovulation
2. secondary oocytes harvested/collected/removed by inserting a fine needle into ovaries/usuing ultrasound, and withdrawing some mature follicles
2. secondary oocytes are kept in a culture medium for a short time and then mixed with semen/sperm
3. cultured for 7 days, the resulting zygotes divide to form blastocysts then embryos,
4. check for best/healthy/normal embryo
4. embryo implanted into UTERUS of the mother or into UTERUS of surrogate several females of the same or different species
4. may freeze embryos for later use/ stored in ‘frozen zoos’
artificial insemination (AI)
- a straw is placed into warm water so that sperm become active and then put into a catheter, which is inserted into the vagina, through the cervix and into the uterus
- may happen when the female is naturally ovulating or may follow hormone treatment so she superovulates to produce a large number of follicles at the time of AI
- following AI, the resulting embryos may be ‘flushed out’ of the uterus and transferred to other females (surrogate mothers) that have had hormonal treatment to prepare them for pregnancy
- protects endangered animals from pregnancy
- the endangered female becomes the source of many offspring
CITES
- signed agreement to control trade of endangered species and their products e.g.: fur, skin, ivory
- trade required w permit if species not yet at risk of extsniction or trade ban if species in danger of extinction
- bordor controls
- provide countries w lists of species endangered
- raise awareness of threats, to biodiversity through education
- every few years have cnference w memebers
- ecnourage governmeny to jon CITES/abide w regulations set
IUCN
- Global/international authority on status of the natural world and measures needed to conserve/protect it
- raise funds/donations
- ban/reduce hunting/poaching/deforatsion
- conserve species/pop/habitats
- educate public of coexistanve of wildlife and people/raise awareness
- regulte/legislate trade in wild species
- assesses/estimate/monitor the status of many of world species of animals and plants
- found on IUCN red list of threat species
- evaluate risk of species, becoming extinct
- influence governments, available to government and environmental campaigners worldwide
disadvantages of captive, breeding programs from mammals
disadvantages:
- unnnatural environment
- stress in captivity
- behavioural changes
- reproductive cycles disrupted
- may reject selected mate
- fewer mates to reproduce with
- examples of problems with release
- difficulty in finding food
- may not integrate into groups
- more susceptible to disease
- very little natural habitat left to release animals into
suggest when morphological species concept is more useful than bio species concept
- for organisms that, do not breed sexually / are asexual ;
- for, fossil / extinct, organisms ;
-morphological differences are easier to determine ; - often not possible to observe reproductive behaviour ;
- time required for mating behaviour may take too long (to be observed)
Explain why more fish species than mammals species are endangered
- overfishing
- at sea difficult to enforce lawa/reg
- increased ocean temp
- pollution e.g plastic in ocean
- more conservation for mammals
- more fish species than mammals species
- laws in place on land to prevent hunting
If a table shows the species abundance has increased after removing a certain species what can this say about restored ecoss when removing species
- removed species no longer prey on other animals
- survived species may decrease at outcompeted by other surviving organisms
- increased species abundance as there are fewer of other organisms
- ecoss is removed species free
- removed species was invasive alien species/predator
adv of zoos in consvervation
- protected from, predators / hunters / poachers ;
- captive breeding
- AI/IVF
- reintroudce into wild
- maintaining genetic database to prevent interbreeding
- research qualified ; e.g. disease control / into diet / behaviour
- raise funds ;
-work with local, communities / governments or conservation projects ;
-education / raise awareness ; - medical / veterinary / health, (care) ;
seed banks
- seeds of the same species collected from different sites, so stored samples contain good proportion of total gene pool of that species so GD is not lost
- seeds can be stored for a long time with little maintenance, anywhere in the world
- seeds are germinated every few years to:
1) check if seeds are still viable produce new plants to collect new seeds
2) find conditions for breaking seed dormancy
ways to keep the genetic diversity of species with seeds
- seeds cannot be dried and frozen, such as seeds of economically important tropical species e.g., rubber, coffee, cocoa
1) collect seeds and grow successive generations of plants
2) keep as tissue culture
sperm bank
a storage facility that holds supplies of semen that’s frozen for future use
*samples are collected from males, checked for sperm activity and then diluted with a medium containing a buffer solution and albumen
*small volumes of semen are put into straws (thin tubes) and are stored in liquid nitrogen at -196°C
frozen zoos
holds genetic resources for endangered species in the form of eggs, sperms and embryos until they’re needed
- holds more genetic diversity than a normal zoo
- genetic material is kept for longer periods of time
*eggs are more difficult to freeze as they are more likely damaged by freezing and thawing (ice crystals may form which damage internal membranes)
botanic garden
1) protect endangered plant species
2) research methods of reproduction and growth
3) control water/light/temp
4) seed banks/collect seeds
5) store seeds in low moisture/low O2
6) seeds tested for viability
7) acts as a gene bank+ maintains GD and germination prior to bavk in natural habitat
8) remove alien species
4) reintroduce species to habitats
5) educate the public (roles of plants in the cosystem; economic value)
6) CITES
national parks
1) tourism brings in money to pay for maintenance of such parks
2) education/ raises awareness if people are involved in conservation efforts
3) ban hunting/trade
4) research of habitat/diet/pop
3) alien animal species are removed; invasive plants are dug up and destroyed
4) monitor pop
4) marine parks: conserve fragile ecosystems and areas at risk of overfishing, dredging, pollution
benefits of prokaroytes having repressible operons/repressible enzymes
- enzymes / proteins, ,made all the time ;
2 (because) enzymes / proteins, needed / necessary (for cell) ;
3 end product inhibition / made until product concentrations too high ;
assumptions made for mmR to be valid
marking, not harmful (described) / cannot be removed (described) ;
2 constant population size ;
3 no, births / deaths (described)
no, immigration / emigration / migration ;
4 (sufficient time for) marked individuals to mix with rest of population ;
5 (penguins are) mobile
