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A&P 2 Exam 1 > 16 Endocrine > Flashcards

16 Endocrine Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 6 main endocrine glands

A 
Pituitary
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Adrenal
Pineal
Thymus
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2
Q

What organs have both endocrine and exocrine functiona

A

Pancreas

Gonads

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3
Q

What other tissues and organs produce hormones

A 
Adipose
Pockets of Cells in : 
small intestine
Stomach
Kidney
Heart
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4
Q

What are hormones

A

Chemical substances secreted by cells into extra cellular fluid
- end up in blood

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5
Q

What is the main function of hormones

A

To regulate the metabolic function of other cells

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6
Q

What are the two classifications of hormones

A

Amino acid based

Steroids

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7
Q

List some amino acid hormones

A 
Amines
Thyroxine
Peptide
Protein hormones
Insulin
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8
Q

List some steroid hormones

A

Gonadal

Adrenocortical

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9
Q

What are steroid hormones synthesized from

A

Cholesterol

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10
Q

What cells respond to hormones

A

Target cells

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11
Q

What are 5 responses to hormones

A 
Alter plasma membrane permeability
Stimulate protein synthesis
Activate or deactivate enzyme systems
Induce secretory activity
Stimulate mitosis
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12
Q

What are the 2 ways that hormones alter cell activity

A

Bind to receptor on membrane

Directly activate gene

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13
Q

What hormone type can directly activate a gene

A

Only steroid hormones

Lipid soluble

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14
Q

How do amino acid hormones initiate cell response

A

Bind to receptor
Intracellular response via second messengers
cAMP

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15
Q

What 3 factors does target cell activation depend on

A

Blood levels of hormone
Relative number of receptors on target cell
Affinity of those receptors for the hormone

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16
Q

Describe up regulation

A

Target cells form more receptors in response to hormone

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17
Q

Describe down regulation

A

Target cells lose receptors in response to hormone

Desensitize

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18
Q

What are the forms that hormones circulate in blood

A

Free

Bound

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19
Q

What hormone type is must be bound to plasma protein

A

Steroids and thyroid

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20
Q

What do the concentrations of circulating hormones reflect

A

Rate of release

Speed of Inactivation and removal from body

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21
Q

How are hormones removed from the blood

A

Degrading enzymes
Kidneys
Liver enzyme systems

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22
Q

What type of control system controls blood levels of hormones

A

Negative feedback systems

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23
Q

What are the 3 stimuli types

A

Humoral
Neural
Hormonal

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24
Q

Describe humoral stimuli

A

Secretion or hormones in direct response to changing blood levels of ion and nutrients

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25
Q

Describe neural stimuli

A

Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release

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26
Q

Describe hormonal stimuli

A

Release of hormones in response to hormones produced by other endocrine organs

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27
Q

Example of humoral stimuli

A

Concentration of calcium in blood
Decline in Ca stimulates parathyroid gland to secrete PTH
PTH causes Ca concentration to increase
Stimulus is now removed

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28
Q

Example of neural stimuli

A

Preganglionic sympathetic fibers stimulate adrenal medulla to secrete catacholamines

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29
Q

What are catacholamines

A

Epinephrine

Norepinephrine

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30
Q

Example of hormonal stimuli

A

Hypothalamic hormones stimulate the anterior pituitary

Pituitary hormones then stimulate targets to secrete more hormones

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31
Q

What is nervous system modulation

A

The nervous system can override normal endocrine controls

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32
Q

Example of nervous system modulation

A

Control of blood glucose levels
Under stress need more glucose
Hypothalamus and SNS are activated to supply more glucose

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33
Q

Another name for the pituitary

A

Hypophysis

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34
Q

Another name for anterior pituitary

A

Adenohypophysis

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35
Q

Another name for posterior pituitary

A

Neurohypophysis

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36
Q

What is posterior pituitary made of

What is it’s function

A

Neural tissue

Receives, stores, and releases hormones from hypothalamus

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37
Q

What is anterior pituitary made of

What is its function

A

Glandular tissue

Synthesize and secretes a number of hormones

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38
Q

Which pituitary lobe is a downgrowth of hypothalamic tissue

A

Posterior

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39
Q

Describe the hypothalamic hypophyseal tract

A

Neural connection between hypothalamus and posterior pituitary

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40
Q

What hormones do nuclei of hypothalamus synthesize

A

Oxytocin

Antidiuretic hormone

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41
Q

What is stored in posterior pituitary

A

Oxytocin

Antidiuretic hormone

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42
Q

What portion of pituitary is epithelial tissue

A

Anterior lobe

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43
Q

How is anterior pituitary connected to the hypothalamus

A

Vascular connection

Hypophyseal portal system

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44
Q

Describe hypophyseal portal system

A

Primary capillary plexus
Hypophyseal portal veins
Secondary capillary plexus

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45
Q

What type of hormones in hypothalamus send stimuli to anterior pituitary

A

Releasing hormones

Inhibiting hormones

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46
Q

Name the hormones of the adenohypophysis

A 
Growth hormone GH
Prolactin PRL
Thyroid stimulating TSH
Adrenocorticotropic ACTH
Follicle stimulating FSH
Luteinizing LH
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47
Q

Name the tropic hormones

A

TSH
ACTH
FSH
LH

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48
Q

Name the gonadotropins

A

FSH

LH

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49
Q

Describe function of growth hormone

A

Stimulate most cells
Target bones and skeletal muscle
Promote protein synth
Encourage use of fat as fuel

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50
Q

What is stimulated by GH to produce insulin like growth factors

A

Liver
Skeletal muscle
Bone
Cartilage

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51
Q

What are somatomedins

A

Insulin like growth factors

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52
Q

What do insulin like growth factors do

A

Indirectly mediate the effects of GH
Promote protein synth
skeletal muscle and bone growth

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53
Q

What are the direct effects of GH

A

Use fats for fuel - lipolysis
Inhibit glucose uptake by tissue cells
Release glucose from liver - elevate blood glucose

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54
Q

What does lipolysis do

A

Elevate blood fatty acid levels

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55
Q

What are glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

A

Break down glycogen to glucose
Synth glucose from lactic acid and noncarb
Both elevate blood glucose levels

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56
Q

What hormones regulate secretion of GH

Where do they come from

A

Growth hormone releasing hormone GHRH
Growth hormone inhibiting hormone
GHIH
Hypothalamus

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57
Q

Hyper secretion of GH in children

A

Gigantism

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58
Q

Hypersecretion of GH in adults

A

Acromegaly

Overgrowth of areas still responsive to GH

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59
Q

Hyposecretion of GH in adults

A

No problem

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60
Q

Hyposecretion of GH in children

A

Pituitary dwarfism

Small kid

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61
Q

What is thyrotropin

A

Thyroid stimulating hormone

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62
Q

What does thyroid gland control

A

Metabolism

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63
Q

What is function of Thyrotropin

A

Stimulate normal development and secretory activity of thyroid

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64
Q

What triggers thyrotropin TSH

A

Hypothalamic peptide

Thyrotropin releasing hormone TRH

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65
Q

What blocks the release of TRH and TSH

A

Rising blood levels of thyroid hormone
GHIH inhibits TSH
Not growing turn down metabolism

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66
Q

What is another name for corticotropin

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH

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67
Q

What is function of ACTH

A

Stimulate adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids

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68
Q

What triggers the release of ACTH

A

Hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone CRH

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69
Q

What blocks release of CRH and ACTH

A

Rising blood levels of cortisol

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70
Q

When is CRH released

A

In daily rhythm- high morning, dropping

Stress: blood loss, low blood glucose, happiness, anxiety

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71
Q

Basic Function of gonadotropins

A

Regulate function of ovaries and testes

FSH stimulates gamete production

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72
Q

When are gonadotropins absent

A

Prepubertal

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73
Q

What triggers gonadotropins

A

Hypothalamic gonadotropin releasing hormone GnRH

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74
Q

Function of gonadotropins in females

A

LH/ FSH maturation of ovarian follicle
LH trigger ovulation
LH promote synth/ release of estrogen/ progesterone

75
Q

Function of gonadotropins in males

A

LH stimulate interstitial cells of testes to produce testosterone

76
Q

What is another name for LH in males

A

Interstitial cell stimulating hormone ICSH

77
Q

Function of prolactin PRL

A

Stimulates mammary gland development
Milk production
Unknown in males

78
Q

What 3 hormones control prolactin release

A

Prolactin inhibiting hormone PIH
Prolactin releasing factors PRF
Estrogen

79
Q

Describe what occurs to prolactin release before menstruation

A

Estrogen stimulates PRF, PRL

Inhibits PIH

80
Q

What occurs to prolactin when placental estrogen, progesterone, and lactogen are present

A

Stimulate PRF, PRL

Inhibits PIH

81
Q

How are mechanoreceptors involved in PRL release

A

Mechanoreceptors send afferent impulses to hypothalamus
Stimulate PRF
Inhibit PIH

82
Q

What is prolactin inhibiting hormone

A

Dopamine

From hypothalamus

83
Q

What is function of ADH

A

Influence water balance

84
Q

What is function of oxytocin

A

Stimulate smooth muscle contractions of uterus and breasts

Triggers milk ejection reflex

85
Q

What monitors the solute concentration of the blood

A

Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus

86
Q

If solute levels are high ADH…

A

ADH preserves water

87
Q

If solute levels are low ADH…

A

ADH is not released

Water loss

88
Q

What inhibits ADH release

A

Alcohol

Copious urine

89
Q

What occurs with inadequate ADH how is it caused

A

Diabetes insipidus

From head injury damaging hypothalamus of posterior pituitary

90
Q

What is the largest endocrine gland

A

Thyroid

Connected by isthmus

91
Q

What do thyroid follicles produce

A

Glycoprotein thyroglobulin

92
Q

Describe colloid

A

Thyroglobulin + iodine

Precursor of thyroid hormone

93
Q

What do para follicular cells secrete

A

Calcitonin

94
Q

What does thyroid hormone consist of

A

2 iodine containing thyroglobulin compounds
T4- thyroxine
T3- triiodothyronine

95
Q

What occurs when iodine attaches to thyroglobulin

A

Forms T1 and T2

96
Q

What forms T3 and T4

A

T1 and T2 linked together

97
Q

When are T3 and T4 release into the bloodstream

A

When colloid is endocytosed and combined a lysosome, where T3 and T4 are cleaved and diffuse into blood

98
Q

What does TSH bind to

A

Follicle cells of thyroid gland

99
Q

Which is released more from follicle T3 or T4

A

T4

100
Q

Is T3 or T4 primarily responsible for effects of TH

A

T3

Enzymes in liver and other tissues can convert T4 to T3

101
Q

What cells respond to thyroid hormone

A

Virtually all cells in body increase metabolic rate

102
Q

How is TH release stopped

A

Negative feedback
High TH, shut off TSH
TRH can override this is necessary- during pregnancy

103
Q

What is target of TRH

A

Anterior pituitary

104
Q

What are the effects of TH

A

Elevate rates of oxygen and energy consumption
Heat production
Increase HR and force of contraction- increase BP
Regulate tissue growth
Develop skeletal/ nervous systems
Maturation
Reproduction

105
Q

What causes hypothyroid

A

Too little TSH or TRH
Iodine deficiency- lack of TH
Thyroid gland removed

106
Q

Describe hypothyroid in adults

A 
Myxedema 
Low metabolic rate
Chilled
Thick dry skin
Lethargy
Mental sluggishness
Puffy eyes
107
Q

Hypothyroid in children

A

Cretinism
Mental retardation
Disproportionate body
Thick neck and tongue

108
Q

What causes goiter

A

Enlarged thyroid

From lack of iodine

109
Q

Symptoms of Hyperthyroid

A 
Graves disease
Elevated metabolic rate
Nervousness
Sweating
Weight loss
Exophthalmos from tissue getting edematous/ fibrous
110
Q

Describe graves disease

A 
Hyperthyroid
Autoimmune disease
Serum has abnormal antibodies against follicle cellar 
Antibodies mimic TSH 
Continuous TH release
111
Q

Why are plasma Ca levels closely regulated

A

To prevent changes in neuromuscular excitability

112
Q

Why is intracellular Ca important

A

For excitation contraction coupling

113
Q

Why is extra cellular Ca important

A

Neuromuscular excitability

114
Q

What happens with low extracellular Ca

A

Na influx is higher
Cell closer to threshold
Muscle may spasm randomly
In diaphragm causes asphyxiation

115
Q

What happens with high extra cellular Ca

A

Decrease Na influx
Hyper polarize- depress excitability
Cause increased cardiac contractions

116
Q

What is the function of calcitonin

A

Lowers blood Ca levels in children

117
Q

What is the antagonist to parathyroid hormone

A

Calcitonin

118
Q

What is calcitonin target

What action occurs

A

Targets skeleton
Inhibits osteoclasts- ca not released from bone
Stimulates Ca uptake/ incorporation into bony matrix

119
Q

What regulates calcitonin levels

A

Negative feedback
Humoral
Ca ion concentration in blood

120
Q

What is another name for PTH

A

Parathormone

121
Q

What is function of parathyroid hormone

A 
Increase Ca levels
Stimulate osteoclasts
Enhance reabsorption of Ca by kidneys
Secretion of phosphate by kidneys
Increase absorption of Ca by intestinal mucosa by activating Vit D
122
Q

What hormone is most important for controlling calcium levels

A

Parathyroid hormone

123
Q

What inhibits release of PTH

A

High blood Ca levels

124
Q

What are symptoms of hyperparathyroid

A

Bones soft and deformed- Ca leached out
Elevated blood Ca- hypercalcemia
Depression of nervous system
Formation of kidney stones from Ca in kidneys

125
Q

What causes hyperparathyroid

A

Tumor

126
Q

What are symptoms of hypoparathyroid

A

Increased excitability of neurons

Respiratory paralysis

127
Q

What causes hypoparathyroid

A

Gland trauma
Removal
Mg deficiency- needed for PTH

128
Q

What is inner adrenal medulla made of

A

Neural tissue

Part of SNS

129
Q

What is outer adrenal cortex made of

A

Glandular tissue

130
Q

How rapidly can catecholamines be released

A

Peak at 30 seconds

131
Q

Roles of epinephrine

A

Dilate bronchioles
Dilate coronary and skeletal muscle vessels
Increase HR and force
Spare glucose
Inhibit insulin release, promote glucagon
Promote lipolysis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis

132
Q

Roles of norepinephrine

A

Peripheral vasoconstriction

Raise BP

133
Q

What area of the adrenal gland secretes catecholamines

What triggers secretions

A

Adrenal medulla

SNS responds to short term stress

134
Q

Describe Hyposecretion of catecholamines from adrenal medulla

A

None

Not problem because of SNS

135
Q

Describe hyper secretion of adrenal medulla

A

Tumor called pheichromacytoma

Symptoms: hypertension, hyperglycemia, excessive sweating

136
Q

What does the adrenal cortex secrete

A

Corticosteroids

137
Q

What are the three layers of the adrenal cortex

A

Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis

138
Q

What does zona glomerulosa produce

A

Mineralcorticoids

Mainly aldosterone

139
Q

What does zona fasciculata produce

A

Glucocorticoids

Mainly cortisol

140
Q

What does zona reticularis produce

A

Gonadocorticoids

Mainly androgens

141
Q

What is role of mineralcorticoids

A

Regulate electrolytes in extra cellular fluids

142
Q

What does aldosterone do

A

Maintain Na balance by reducing excretion
Stimulates reabsorption of Na by kidneys
Secretion of K

143
Q

What stimulates aldosterone secretion

A

Rising K levels
Low Na levels
Decrease BP/ volume

144
Q

What are the major mechanisms for aldosterone secretion

A

Renin-angiotensin mechanism
Plasma concentration of Na/ K
ACTH
Atrial natriuretic peptide ANP

145
Q

Describe how renin angiotensin mechanism works

A

Kidneys release renin when blood volume drops
Leads to angiotensin 2
Stimulates aldosterone release

146
Q

How do plasma concentrations influence secretion of aldosterone

A

By directly influencing the zona glomerulosa

147
Q

How does the ACTH aldosterone secretion mechanism work

A

By causing small increases of aldosterone during stress

148
Q

What does ANP do for aldosterone secretion

A

Inhibits activity of zona glomerulosa

149
Q

What is the roll of cortisol

A

Help body resist stress

150
Q

How does cortisol reduce stress

A 
Sparing glucose for brain
Promote gluconeogenesis 
Promote fatty acid release from adipose 
Amino acid release from cells
Suppress the immune system
151
Q

Important details about gonadocorticoids

A

Small amount of androgens and estrogen secreted

Contribute to onset of puberty and female sex drive

152
Q

What are the 3 disorders of the adrenal cortex

A

Adrenogenital syndrome
Cushings disease/syndrome
Addison’s disease

153
Q

Important details about androgenital syndrome

A

Tumor of zona reticularis
Masculation of females
Femalization of dudes

154
Q

What causes cushings disease

A

Excess levels of glucocorticoid

155
Q

Difference between cushings disease/ syndrome

A

Disease- ACTH releasing tumor

Syndrome- glucocorticoid drugs, like cortisol

156
Q

Symptoms of cushings disease

A 
Immune system depressed
Protracted/ exaggerated stress response
Lipid reserves mobilized
Peripheral proteins broken down
Adipose redistribution- moon face
157
Q

What causes Addison’s disease

A

Too little mineralcorticoids/ glucocorticoid

- ACTH deficiency

158
Q

Symptoms of Addison’s

A

Weak
Loose weight
Low BP/ volume
Can’t tolerate stress

159
Q

What do alpha cells produce

A

Glucagon

160
Q

What do beta cells produce

A

Insulin

161
Q

What is glycogenolysis

A

Glycogen to glucose

162
Q

What is gluconeogenesis

A

Synth of glucose from lactic acid and noncarbohydrates

163
Q

What is glucagon

A

28 amino acid polypeptide hormone

Potent hyperglycemia agent

164
Q

What does glucagon target and promote

A

Liver
Release of glucose to blood
Glycogenolysis
Glyconeogenesis

165
Q

What is insulin

A

51 amino acid protein

With 2 amino acid chains linked by disulfide bonds

166
Q

How is insulin made

A

Synth as part of proinsulin then excised by enzyme

Released as insulin

167
Q

What are functions of insulin

A 
Lower blood glucose levels
Enhance transport of glucose into cells
Catalyzes oxidation of glucose for ATP
Polymerizes glucose into glycogen
Converts glucose to fat
168
Q

Hyperglycemic effects…

A

Glucagon

169
Q

Hypoglycemic effects of…

A

Insulin

170
Q

What causes diabetes mellitus

A

Hyposecretion
Hypo activity
Of insulin

171
Q

What are 3 signs of DM

A

Polyuria
Polydipsia
Polyphagia

172
Q

Describe polyuria

A

Huge urine output

173
Q

Describe polydipsia

A

Excessive thirst

174
Q

Describe polyphagia

A

Excessive hunger and food consumption

175
Q

Describe hyperinsulinism

A

Excessive insulin secretion

Results in hypoglycemia

176
Q

What causes type 1 DM

A

Autoimmune disease

177
Q

What causes type 2 DM

A

Down regulation of insulin receptors

178
Q

What is the function of metatonin

A

Day/ night cycles

Physiological processes that show rhythmic variations

179
Q

What hormone does heart produce what does it do

A

Atrial natriuretic peptide ANP
Reduce BP/ volume
Reduce blood Na concentration

180
Q

What hormone is produce by gastrointestinal tracts

A

Enteroendocrine cells release local acting digestive hormones

181
Q

What hormones are produced by kidneys

What do they do

A

Renin and EPO
Regulate aldosterone- blood volume
Production of red blood cells

182
Q

What hormone does skin produce

What is its function

A

Cholecalciferol

The precursor of Vit D

183
Q

What hormone does adipose issue release

Function

A

Leptin
Satiety
Increased energy expenditure

A&P 2 Exam 1 (2 decks)

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