14.1 National Development Flashcards
1
Q
Explain the stages of the Clark fisher model
A
- pre-industrial stage is dominated by primary sector employment such as agriculture, fishing, mining + other activities involving the extraction of raw materials
- the industrial stage revolves around a large manufacturing industry after experiencing a decline in the agriculture sector generally
- post industrial stage is dominated by the tertiary sector which involves the provision of services such as tourism, education + healthcare - development into this stage was facilitated by an increase in incomes so govt had greater tax revenue to invest in development of education + healthcare = creates a highly skilled workforce
2
Q
Give an example for the pre-industrial stage
A
- Mali
- agriculture is still their largest economic sector, with crops such as maize + cotton being grown to be exported
- the pre-industrial stage is usually found in LICs due to their primary product dependency
3
Q
Give an example for the industrial stage
A
- agricultural revolution in the UK caused a shift from primary to secondary employment
- mechanisation meant less workers were required in the farming industry, thereby encouraging rural-urban migration as employment moved towards the manufacturing sector with the Industrial Revolution
- china in 1980s experienced rapid economic growth from industrialisation + its successful manufacturing sector led to continued development into the tertiary sector but it still remains the biggest manufacturing nation in the world
4
Q
Give an example for the post-industrial stage?
A
- the uk is one of the largest economies in the world with London being ranked as the most competitive financial centre
- the quaternary sector is growing at a fast rate in the UK, with the country having the highest share of global pharmaceutical research + development
5
Q
Evaluation of the Clark fisher model
A
- some countries fit well e.g. UK experienced the changes displaced by the model + is now in the final stage of its quaternary sector growth
- BUT some countries have not undergone the ‘industrial stage’ of the model but their tertiary sector is still bigger than primary + secondary e.g. Jamaica
- model doesn’t consider globalisation = FDI from TNCs acts a catalyst for development rather than mechanisation + NICs are getting technology more than HICs that have already gone through the process
- model doesn’t consider impact of high levels of debt = LICs lack the money to invest in their infrastructure = limits FDI + development through stages
6
Q
What’s a reason for the change in employment structure in HICs?
A
- outsourcing —> companies did this to save money by moving work abroad where labour costs are lower e.g. many British + American companies have outsourced their call centres to India
- it has been the revolution in information + communications technology that has enabled outsourcing to develop so rapidly
7
Q
What is development?
A
- improvements in people’s quality of life, seen through factors such as wealth, health, education etc.
- seen in LICs when local food supply improves due to investment in farm machinery + fertiliser, electricity in rural areas, improvements in literacy rates etc.
8
Q
What is the Brandt report?
A
- made 1890 to display the global differences in development
- claims there is the ‘rich north’ above the equator + ‘poor south’
- BUT = model deemed too simplistic due to there being many stages of development + country’s develop at different speeds
9
Q
What are the different levels of economic development
A
- LDCs = 45 countries today
- LICs
- MICs
- HICs
10
Q
What are the economic indicators of development?
A
- GDP/GDP per capita
- GNP
- GNI
- GNI PPP
11
Q
What is GDP + GDP/capita?
A
- total value of goods + services produced by the country
- /capita = divided by the population
12
Q
What is GNP?
A
- the total value of all goods and services produced by a country’s citizens in a given financial year, irrespective of their location
13
Q
What is GNI?
A
- total value of goods + services produced by the country + income from other countries
14
Q
What is GNI PPP?
A
- purchasing power parity
- converted to US dollars to make it comparable + then adjusted to the country’s cost of living to allow comparison between standards of living
15
Q
What are the strengths of GNI PPP?
A
- facilitates comparison of standards of living between countries
- data collected over time so changes are taken into account
16
Q
Limitations of GNI PPP
A
- it is an average = masks extremes of income inequality within a country
- e.g. Saudi Arabia has a high GNI due to having a few extremely wealthy people but the figure hides the large amounts of poverty that also exists
- e.g. Cuba has a low GNI ($7,879 in 2021) but a higher HDI (0.764) compared to others with the same GNI because of their communist govt which invests heavily in health + education = doesn’t take into account how govts invest the money
- doesn’t include informal sector or unpaid contributions to the economy
17
Q
Strengths of GDP per capita
A
18
Q
Limitations of GDP per capita
A
19
Q
What is the Human Development Index?
A
way of measuring development using three indicators:
- life expectancy at birth (health)
- educational attainment (mean years of schooling for adults / expected years of schooling for children of entering age)
- GNI per person PPP (income)
20
Q
What is the Human Development report?
A
- launched by the UN in 1990
- explores challenges including poverty, gender, democracy, human rights, globalisation, water scarcity etc,
- contains the HDI which displays the health, education + income levels of all countries
21
Q
Strengths of the HDI?
A
- composite index (health, education + income) = combines social + economic data to calculate a figure to represent the level of development + therefore considers quality of life as well as just income
- produced annually by the UN as party of the HDR so it can be used to track changes in countries over time
22
Q
Weakness of the HDI
A
- statistics are based on averages = hides wealth + quality of life distributions between people + regions
- e.g. Brazil = more development in SE (São Paulo) due to greater educational attainment than rural north
- doesn’t identify the quality of education in each country
- fails to consider rural + urban differences, as well as gender inequality —> e.g. Peru 95% of men + 84% women are literate in urban areas, compared to 88% men + 63% women in rural areas
23
Q
What is the multidimensional poverty index?
A
- an international measure of multidimensional poverty that focuses on over 100 developing countries
- uses 10 indicators that covers health, education + living standards
- health = nutrition, child mortality
- education = years of schooling, school attendance
- living standards = cooking fuel, sanitation, drinking water, electricity, housing, assets
24
Q
Strengths of the MPI
A
- provides very detailed data for the poorest countries = enables comparisons to be made both between countries + within countries
- allows areas that need focus on for funding be identified = able to design policies to meet the country’s needs
25
Q
Weaknesses of the MPI
A
- only focuses on the 100 poorest countries
- however, it is still an effective tool to use alongside the HDI and when trying to advance development in LDCs
26
Q
What is the gender inequality index?
A
a composite metric which uses three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment + the labour market
27
Q
Strengths of the GII
A
- covers a weakness of the HDI by identifying gender inequality
- e.g. Peru the GII identified in 2022 that female labour participation rate was 66% compared to it being 82% for men
28
Q
What are the individual measurements of development?
A
- infant mortality rate
- education
- nutrition
29
Q
How is infant mortality rate calculated?
A
Number of deaths of infants under the age of one per 1000 live births per year
30
Q
Strengths of infant mortality rate
A
- most sensitive indicator of socio-economic development
- important measure of health equity between + within countries
- significant influence on fertility rates
31
Q
Limitations of infant mortality rate
A
- many countries have significant disparities in IMR due to differences in access to health technology in different regions
- urban/rural problem
32
Q
How is education calculated?
A
- Mean years of schooling received by adults aged 25+
- expected years of schooling for a child entering school
33
Q
Strengths of education as a measurement
A
- world bank concluded that female literacy + quality education in general is fundamental to development
- strong rship between female literacy + infant mortality rates = women more knowledgeable on spacing births, encouragement of female empowerment + allows women to make more rational decisions
34
Q
Limitations of education as a measurement
A
- doesn’t take into account quality of education
35
Q
How is nutrition calculated?
A
36
Q
Strengths of nutrition
A
- directly impacts health, productivity + economic growth
- reduces infant + maternal mortality
- increases LE
- increased labour force participation
- malnutrition strongly associated with people stuck in the cycle of poverty in LDCs
37
Q
Weakness of nutrition as a measurement
A
- needs to be used alongside other measurements to provide a full picture of development within a country
38
Q
What is the current global poverty situation?
A
1 person in every 7 struggles on a daily basis in terms of:
- adequate nutrition
- uncontaminated water
- safe shelter
- adequate sanitation
- access to basic healthcare
/
- people in LDCs have to survive on less than $1.25 a day (1 bn people)
39
Q
What allows countries to move through levels of economic development?
A
- positive multiplier effect = cumulative causation
- Bangladesh is set to move up from an LDC to LIC in 2026 due to TNC investment in their textile industry which enabled them to gain a fairer share in the terms of trade
40
Q
What are LDCs?
A
- poorest of the developing countries
- they have major economic, institutional + human resource problems
- these are often made worse by geographical handicaps and natural + human disasters
41
Q
A
42
Q
Where are most LDCs found?
A
- many are found in sub-Saharan Africa
- ## others located in the poverty belt of Asia e.g. Nepal + Afghanistan or small island nations in South Pacific
43
Q
What limits LDC growth?
A
- as the gap between the richest + poorest nations widens, LDCs are increasingly marginalised in the world economy
- their share of world trade is declining + they are usually dependent on one or a small number of exports for their survival
- in many LDCs national debt equals or exceeds GDP
44
Q
Examples of NICs
A
- first generation of NICs were South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan + Hong Kong = referred to as the four ‘Asian tigers’
- second generation was BRIC = Brazil, Russia, India + china = India + China opened their economy to FDI from TNCs in the 1990s
45
Q
What causes a development gap?
A
- physical geography
- economic policies
- demography
46
Q
How does physical geography cause a development gap?
A
- location = landlocked countries have higher transport costs + limited access to ports, which could be intensified if the country is in conflict with neighbouring countries e.g. Sudan + South Sudan
- amount of natural resources = limits their exports
- climate
47
Q
How does economic policies cause a development gap?
A
- needs a govt that will welcome FDI from TNCs e.g. China + India to stimulate a multiplier effect
- TNCs won’t invest in a country with a corrupt govt or civil rights issues
48
Q
How does demography cause a development gap?
A
- high BR puts pressure on a country’s resources e.g. education + healthcare
- low status of women = limited access to education + expectations to have lots of children
- stuck in viscous cycle of poverty = unable to develop
49
Q
Economic consequences of a development gap?
A
- 1/8 live on less than $1.25 per day + almost 1/2 live on less than $2 per day
- poor countries frequently lack the ability to pay for food, agricultural innovation + investment into rural development
50
Q
Social consequences of the development gap
A
- more than 850 million people in poor countries can’t read or write
- nearly a billion people do not have access to clean water
- 2.4 billion do not have access to basic sanitation
- 11 million children under 5 die from preventable diseases every year
51
Q
Environmental consequences of the development gap
A
- poor countries have increased vulnerability to natural disasters
- lack the capacity to adapt to climate change or deal with consequent droughts
- poor farming practices lead to environmental degradation + often raw materials are exploited with little economic benefit to poor countries
52
Q
Political consequences of the development gap
A
- LDCs often have a non-democratic govt or they are democracies that function poorly
- usually a strong link between development + quality of govt
