1.3 Undernutrition, infectious morbidity and mortality Flashcards
Overview
Good nutrition fosters the growth of a strong and healthy population that is economically productive; and this holds true for both the individual and the population.Conversely, we have established that undernutrition in its varied forms leads to:Immuno-incompetence and a high burden of infectious disease; Increased severity of disease and higher mortality; and Reduced economic productivity.
Overview
As such, undernutrition matters. Poverty and socio-economic deprivation may be linked to poor nutrition but the outcomes can differ: in high income countries obesity is often an outcome of poverty due to easy access to cheap, but high calorie convenience foods; in low-income settings undernourishment can be the result of poverty; and however, in low-income urban settings again the outcome is obesity. Undernutrition in children and adults increases the risk from infections and is a major contributor to the increased morbidity and mortality in populations in low-income countries.
Overview Learning objectives
After working through this session, you will be better able to: understand the cycle between undernutrition and infection; describe the evidence base for the association between undernutrition and risk of morbidity, mortality from infections and effects on growth in children; and explain the role of key micronutrients and combined micronutrient deficiencies on the risk of infections.
Key terms Catabolism
The metabolic breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, resulting in a release of energy.
Key terms ‘Catch-up’ Growth
A period of rapid growth, above the normal growth rate for age, following a period of slow growth caused by acute malnutrition or severe illness.
Key terms Kwashiorkor
Severe undernutrition in young children characterized by oedema.
Key terms Latent infection
Pathogen remains dormant and the infection may not progress to active infection or disease unless re-activated.
Key terms Marasmus
Severe undernutrition in young children characterized by severe muscle-wasting.
Classification of undernutrition
The terms ‘malnutrition’ and ‘undernutrition’ are often used loosely and interchangeably but ‘malnutrition’ is the umbrella term referring to allforms of poor nutrition: undernutrition; overnutrition; and micronutrient imbalances. Micronutrient deficiencies are often called ‘hidden’ malnutrition and indeed they are rarely visually apparent.
Classification of undernutrition
This sections focus is undernutrition as a result of insufficient quantity of food. It is important to bear in mind that energy is typically the most important inadequacy; without energy the body can’t digest food or launch an immune response.
Classification of undernutrition
The effects of an inadequate dietary intake start with catabolism of body fat and is followed by catabolism of skeletal muscle to supply energy – it is this catabolism of lean body mass that underlies the process of wasting. The degree of wasting of different tissues varies with the type and duration of the disease. There is break down of the visceral organs, but the brain and nervous tissue will typically be protected. The catabolic response to poor food intake can be further understood in terms of type-1 and type 2 nutrients (Golden, 2009).
Classification of undernutrition
Type-1nutrientsare stored in the body and have control mechanisms to regulate delivery to the tissues. Most micronutrients (vitamins A, calcium and iron) fall into this category. A dietary inadequacy of a type-1 nutrient causes a depletion of body reserves and the impairment of the specific nutrients function.
Classification of undernutrition
Type-2 nutrientssuch as sodium, potassium, calcium and zinc don’t have body stores as such but are an integral part of our cells. After digestion they are used in the building of new cells and growth, so a dietary inadequacy leads to reduced growth, slow cell turnover and slow tissue repair. This immediately reduces the need for the specific nutrient. However, if more of a type-2 nutrient is needed then lean body mass with be catabolised to release it.
Classification of undernutrition
The loss of body tissue compromises the ability of the individual to mount an immune response and combat infections; thus, a predisposition to periodic infections is established. Any loss of body strength will also lead to a drop in work capacity and a reduced ability to sustain economically productive work.
Classification of undernutrition
The two classical syndromes of undernutrition in children (kwashiorkor and marasmus), have been recognized for many decades. Kwashiorkor is diagnosed by the presence of bilateral oedema whereas marasmus is severe loss of body weight as a result of severe wasting. The clinical features of kwashiorkor, see Photo 1, and marasmus, see Photo 2, are different but some children presenting with kwashiorkor will ‘recover’ and lose the oedema to reveal an emaciated marasmic child. Kwashiorkor and marasmus are both types of very severe undernutrition and it is not understood why some children develop kwashiorkor and other marasmus. The severity of weight deficit and the presence or absence of oedema constitute the two important criteria both for the diagnosis of undernutrition and for its classification.
Classification of undernutrition Kwashiorkor
The term ‘kwashiorkor’ was first introduced by Cicely Williams in 1933. In the language of the Ga tribe who live in Ghana, kwashiorkor was the name for the ‘sickness of the older child when the next baby is born’. It is of note that this timing could also relate to when there is an increase in complementary foods and a concomitant reduction in breast milk intake. Features: Acute undernutrition with bilateral oedema, metabolic dysfunction, signs: moon face, flaky paint skin, hair changes, salt/water imbalance, poorer prognosis
Classification of undernutrition Kwashiorkor
In the early 20thcentury, a low protein intake was thought to be a determinant of kwashiorkor but this is not current thinking; particularly as within twins one can be marasmic and the other have kwashiorkor. The metabolic dysfunction seen in kwashiorkor could be the result of an overload of free radicals which leads to extensive tissue damage by the resultant oxidative stress. However, undernutrition itself also prevents adequate cellular repair so could cause skin lesions, oedema, fatty liver. We still do not understand why some children develop kwashiorkor but similar children remain marasmic.
Classification of undernutrition Kwashiorkor
Catabolism, free radicals and poor nutrition all impact the quality of the primary barriers such as skin, mucosal linings and the basic innate immune defences. This immunocompetence results in more infections, often by multiple pathogens which further increases free radical exposure. The first aim in the treatment of kwashiorkor is to stabilise the dysfunctional metabolism and prevent further oxidative stress.
Classification of undernutrition Kwashiorkor
This requires thevery gradual re-feeding with a low to moderate protein diet; providing antibiotic treatment; andwithholdingiron supplementation, due to lack of a carrier protein; and careful fluid management/restriction (Golden 2010). The oedema is the result of a salt-water imbalance and this must be carefully managed. Only when the oedema resolves, can normal metabolic functionality be presumed, and the treatment shift to the higher intake of feed. The child’s appetite tends to increase once they stabilise.
Classification of undernutrition Marasmus
The term ‘marasmus’ is derived from the Greek word meaning ‘dying away’ and is applied to severe undernutrition in children. Absence of oedema in the presence of severe muscle wasting is characteristic of marasmus.Note: starvation, irritability, prominent stomach, Wt/Ht <90%, MUAC <11.5cm. The small bowel microbiome will change during undernutrition and ‘bad’ bacterial overgrowth can result. The protruding belly is due to a combination of the gases from the microbiome and worms.
Classification of undernutrition Stunting
Persistent sub-optimal food intake associated with recurrent and episodic undernutrition in children can result in short stature. A restricted diet can prevent a child reaching their maximum genetic potential for growth, furthermore any future ‘catch up’ growth is improbable if limited food access remains even if the child remains free from infection.
Classification of undernutrition Stunting
Stunting can occasionally be encountered in affluent societies as a result of clinical conditions. For example, coeliac disease can cause severe malabsorption, following intestinal surgery or in children with a chronic and severe anorexia secondary to some other pathology e.g. chronic infection. Stunting is difficult to detect by eye as children may visually look younger than they are; they may also exhibit slower sexual maturation.
Activity 1 Turn back to Section 1, Assessment of nutritional status. Review the session and make notes about how undernutrition is assessed in infants, children, adults and the elderly.
Infection and undernutrition in children
The interaction between infection and undernutrition is complex and it is not always possible or easy to separate the effects of infection on undernutrition from the effects of nutrition on infection. It can, however, be helpful to do so and in this section the role of infections as an immediate and direct cause undernutrition is discussed.