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Biology Topic 1 > 1.3 Risk factors for cardiovascular disease > Flashcards

1.3 Risk factors for cardiovascular disease Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a cohort study?

A

They follow a large group of people over time to see who develops the disease and who does not

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2
Q

What type of study is a cohort study?

A

Prospective; at the start of the study none of the participants have the disease

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3
Q

What happens during a cohort study?

A

People’s exposure to suspected risk factors and whether they develop the disease is recorded so any correlations between the factors and disease development can be identified

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4
Q

What are disadvantages of a cohort study?

A

It may take a long time for the condition to develop so these studies can take years and be very expensive

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5
Q

How are cohort studies used for CVD?

A

Every two years the participants are asked to provide a detailed medical history, undergo a physical examination and tests, and answer questions about their lifestyle

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6
Q

What major CVD risk factors were identified from the cohort study?

A

• High blood pressure
• High blood cholesterol
• Smoking
• Obesity
• Diabetes
• Physical inactivity

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7
Q

What is a case-control study?

A

A group of people with a disease are compared with a control group of individuals who do not have the disease

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8
Q

What type of study is a case-control study?

A

Retrospective; participants already have the disease

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9
Q

What happens during a case-control study?

A

Information is collected about the risk factors that they have been exposed to in the past, allowing factors that may have contributed to development of the disease can be identified

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10
Q

What are features of a good study?

A

• Clear aim
• Representative sample
• Valid and reliable results
• Sample size
• Controlling variables

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11
Q

What are risk factors for CVD?

A

• High blood pressure
• Obesity
• Blood cholesterol and other dietary factors
• Smoking
• Inactivity
• Genetic inheritance

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12
Q

What is hypertension?

A

High blood pressure

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13
Q

What is blood pressure a measure of?

A

The hydrostatic force of the blood against the walls of a blood vessel

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14
Q

When is pressure in arteries highest?

A

When the ventricles have contracted and forced blood into the arteries - systolic pressure

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15
Q

When is pressure in arteries lowest?

A

When the ventricles are relaxed - diastolic pressure

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16
Q

How is systolic pressure measured?

A

When the blood first starts to spurt through the artery that has been closed

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17
Q

How is diastolic pressure measured?

A

When the pressure falls to the point where no sound can be heard and it equals the lowest pressure in the artery

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18
Q

What is the top and bottom number of a blood pressure?

A

Top = systolic pressure, maximum blood pressure when heart contracts
Bottom = diastolic pressure, blood pressure when heart relaxes

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19
Q

What is peripheral resistance?

A

Contact between blood and the walls of the blood vessels causes friction and this impedes the flow of blood

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20
Q

Describe the roles of arterioles and capillaries in blood flow.

A

They offer a greater total surface area than the arteries, resisting flow more, slowing the blood down and causing the blood pressure to fall

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21
Q

What are the fluctuations in pressure in the arteries caused by?

A

Contraction and relaxation of the heart. As blood is expelled from the heart, pressure is higher.

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22
Q

Describe the effect of smooth muscle contraction in arteries and arterioles.

A

This contraction leads to vessel constriction, making the lumen narrower and increasing resistance, which raises blood pressure

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23
Q

How does smooth muscle relaxation affect blood pressure?

A

This relaxation dilates the lumen of blood vessels, so peripheral resistance is reduced and blood pressure falls

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24
Q

List some factors that contribute to the construction of arteries and arterioles and therefore elevated blood pressure.

A

• Natural loss of elasticity with age
• Release of hormones (adrenaline)
• High-salt diet

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25
Q

What is oedema?

A

Fluid building up in tissues and causing swelling. It may be associated with kidney or liver disease, or with restricted body movement.

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26
Q

What forms tissue fluid?

A

Pressure forces fluid and small molecules normally found in plasma out through the tiny gaps between the cells of the capillary wall into the intercellular space.

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27
Q

What happens to this tissue fluid?

A

The tissue fluid drains into a network of lymph capillaries which returns the fluid to the blood via a lymph vessel which empties into the vena cava

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28
Q

What is one calorie?

A

The quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1cm3 of water by 1°C

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29
Q

What is the general formula of a carbohydrate?

A

Cx(H2O)n

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30
Q

How are polymers made?

A

By linking identical or similar subunits, monomers, to form straight or branched chains

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31
Q

How do the small molecules join together?

A

In a condensation reaction, so called because a water molecule is released as the two molecules combine in the reaction. Addition of water in a hydrolysis reaction splits the molecule.

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32
Q

What are monosaccharides?

A

Single sugar units with the general formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule

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33
Q

How many carbon atoms do monosaccharides have?

A

Between 3 and 7 carbon atoms, the most common number is 6. For example, glucose, galactose and fructose all contain 6 and are known as hexose sugars.

34
Q

What is the structure of a hexose sugar molecule?

A

It has a ring structure formed by 5 carbons and an oxygen atom; the sixth carbon projects above or below the ring. The carbon atoms in the molecule are numbered, starting with 1 on the extreme right. The side branches project above or below the ring, and their position determines the type of sugar molecule and its properties.

35
Q

What do monosaccharides do?

A

They provide a rapid source of energy. They are readily absorbed and require little or, in the case of glucose, no change before being used in cellular respiration

36
Q

What is glucose?

A

Glucose is important as the main sugar used by all cells in respiration. Starch and glycogen are polymers made up of glucose subunits joined together. When starch or glycogen is digested, glucose is produced. This can be absorbed and transported in the bloodstream to cells.

37
Q

Draw the structure of glucose

A
38
Q

What is galactose?

A

Galactose occurs in our diet mainly as part of the disaccharide sugar lactose, which is found in milk. Notice that the -OH groups on carbon 1 and carbon 4 lie on the opposite side of the ring compared with their position in glucose.

39
Q

Draw the structure of galactose

A
40
Q

What is fructose?

A

Fructose is a sugar which occurs naturally in fruit, honey and some vegetables. It’s sweetness attracts animals to eat the fruits and so help with seed dispersal.

41
Q

Draw the structure of fructose

A
42
Q

What are disaccharides?

A

Two single sugar units can join together and form a disaccharide in a condensation reaction releasing a water molecule

43
Q

What is the bond that forms between the two sugar units?

A

Glycosidic bond

44
Q

Draw the condensation reaction of maltose

A
45
Q

What is sucrose?

A

Sucrose, formed from glucose and fructose, is the usual form in which sugar is transported around the plant

46
Q

Draw the structure of sucrose

A
47
Q

What is maltose?

A

Maltose, formed from two glucose molecules, is the disaccharide produced when amylase breaks down into starch. It is found in germinating seeds such as barley as they break down their starch stores to use for food.

48
Q

Draw the structure of maltose

A
49
Q

What is lactose?

A

Galactose and glucose make up lactose, the sugar found in milk

50
Q

Draw the structure of lactose

A
51
Q

How can the glycosidic bond in a disaccharide be split?

A

Hydrolysis, this is the reverse of condensation: water is added to the bond and the molecule splits into two

52
Q

When does hydrolysis of carbohydrates take place?

A

When carbohydrates are digested in the gut and when carbohydrate stores in a cell are broken down to release sugars

53
Q

How are polysaccharides and disaccharides digested?

A

They have to be digested into monosaccharides before being absorbed, which takes some time, so the monosaccharides are released more slowly

54
Q

What are polysaccharides?

A

Polymers made up from simple sugar monomers joined by glycosidic bonds into long chains. Each sugar monomers is joined to the chain in a condensation reaction with a water molecule released during.

55
Q

What are the three main types of polysaccharide found in food?

A

• Starch in plants
• Cellulose in plants
• Glycogen in animals

56
Q

What are starch and glycogen?

A

They act as energy storage molecules within cells. These polysaccharides are suitable for storage because they are compact molecules with low solubility in water.

57
Q

What is starch made up of?

A

A mixture of two molecules, amylose and amylopectin

58
Q

What is amylose composed of?

A

A straight chain of between 200 and 5000 glucose molecules with 1,4 glycosidic bonds between adjacent glucose molecules

59
Q

What is amylopectin?

A

A polymer of glucose but it has side branches. A 1,6 glycosidic link holds each side branch onto the main chain.

60
Q

What are the proportions of amylopectin and amylose in starch grains?

A

70-80% amylopectin
20-30% amylose

61
Q

What makes starch a great storage molecule?

A

The compact spiral structure of starch and its insoluble nature make it an excellent storage molecule. It does not diffuse across cell membranes and has very little osmotic effect within the cell.

62
Q

What is glycogen composed of?

A

Glucose molecules

63
Q

What makes glycogen a great storage molecule?

A

It’s numerous side branches mean that is can rapidly hydrolysed, giving easy access to stored energy

64
Q

What is cellulose?

A

Cellulose in the diet is known as dietary fibre. Up to 10 000 glucose molecules are joined to form a straight chain with no branches.

65
Q

What are lipids?

A

Organic molecules found in every type of cell. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organisms solvents. Most of the lipids we eat are triglycerides which are used as energy stores.

66
Q

What are triglycerides made up of?

A

Three fatty acids and one glycerol molecule linked by condensation reactions

67
Q

What is the bond that forms between each fatty acid and the glycerol known as?

A

An ester bond. Three ester bonds are formed in a triglyceride. Each is formed in a condensation reaction with the release of a water molecule.

68
Q

Draw the structure of a triglyceride formation

A
69
Q

What is a saturated fat?

A

If the fatty acid chains in a lipid contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms they are said to be saturated. In a saturated fatty acid the hydrocarbon chain is long and straight.

70
Q

What properties do saturated fats have?

A

Straight, saturated hydrocarbon chains can pack together closely. The strong intermolecular bonds between triglycerides made up of saturated fatty acids result in fats that are solid at room temp.

71
Q

Draw a saturated hydrocarbon chain

A
72
Q

What are monounsaturated fats?

A

They have one double bond between two of the carbon atoms in each fatty acid chain

73
Q

What are polyunsaturated fats?

A

They have a larger number of double bonds

74
Q

What does a double bond cause?

A

A kink in the hydrocarbon chain, these kinks prevent the unsaturated hydrocarbon chains packing closely together

75
Q

What properties do unsaturated fats have?

A

Increasing the distance between the molecules weakens the intermolecular forces between the unsaturated triglycerides resulting in oils that are liquid at room temp

76
Q

How do you make unsaturated fats saturated?

A

Unsaturated fats can be made more solid at room temp by adding hydrogen to the double bond making them saturated

77
Q

Draw an unsaturated hydrocarbon chain

A
78
Q

What is cholesterol?

A

Cholesterol is a short lipid molecule which is essential for good health

79
Q

What functions does cholesterol have?

A

• It is a vital component of cell membranes with roles in their organisation and functioning
• Steroid sex hormones and growth hormones are made from it
• Bile salts, involved in lipid digestion, are also formed from it

80
Q

Where is cholesterol made?

A

Is it made in the liver from saturated fats and also obtained in our diet. It is found associated with saturated fats in foods such as eggs, meat and dairy.

Biology Topic 1 (6 decks)

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