13 Flashcards
Gender & Development
Gender ≠ sex
Sex = biological attributes, including chromosomes, gene expression, hormone levels, reproductive anatomy
Usually female or male, but variation can occur between these endpoints
Gender identity: perception of the self as relatively masculine or feminine (or both, or neither)
- Occurs on a spectrum, not a dichotomy
Cisgender = identify with gender assigned at birth / biological sex
Transgender = gender identity that differs from one assigned at birth / biological sex
Non-binary = identifies as both male and female or neither
Gender stereotypes: widely held beliefs about characteristics deemed appropriate for a person based on their gender identity
E.g., “women are… “ “men are…”
Gender roles: the reflection of these stereotypes in everyday behaviour
Instrumental traits, reflecting competence, rationality, and assertiveness, typically regarded as masculine
Expressive traits, emphasizing warmth, caring, and sensitivity, viewed as feminine
Certain jobs / activities assoc. more with men or women
Androgyny = coexistences of both instrumental and expressive traits in a person
More flexible than individuals who are strongly gender-typed
During early childhood, gender-stereotyped beliefs are acquired rapidly and are rigid
The terms “sex” and “gender” are often used interchangeably in everyday conversation, but scientists (and other advocates of sexual and gender diversity) recognize that these are, in fact, distinct concepts. The Canadian Institutes of Health Research defines sex as “a set of biological attributes in humans and animals… including chromosomes, gene expression, hormone levels and function, and reproductive/sexual anatomy.” When a baby is born, parents are required by law (in Canada, and most countries) to designate the infant’s sex on a birth registration form as either male or female. But according to a growing consensus of biologists, sex is not a simple dichotomy – although the majority of people are phenotypically female or male, there can be variability between these endpoints on a spectrum based on variations (or extra copies) of certain genes. For instance, recall in Chapter 2 we looked at sex chromosome disorders, including Klinefelter’s Syndrome, in which an individual has two X chromosomes and a single Y chromosome. These individuals are classified as male at birth, as they have male external genitalia (and usually later identify as boys/men), yet often develop female secondary sex characteristics at puberty (enlarged hips, breast growth), and experience problems with infertility due to lower testosterone levels and lower than average sperm counts.
If you’re interested in learning more about variation on the sexual spectrum, I’ve attached a link to an article from Scientific American which succinctly explains some of the factors influencing the variability of sex in greater detail:
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/sex-redefined-the-idea-of-2-sexes-is-overly-simplistic1/
Gender, by contrast, refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, expressions and identities of girls, women, boys, men, and gender diverse people. One’s gender identity – be it cisgender, transgender, or non-binary – is a personal choice that should be respected. Non-binary is an umbrella term; some individuals who use this term identify as transgender, others as agender (i.e., not having a gender at all), or having a fluctuating gender identity (i.e., gender-fluid, or gender-nonconformist).
We can all likely remember times when we’ve heard someone making broad generalizations about people of a certain gender category. Popular self-help books like Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus (as well as many movies and TV sitcoms) perpetuate many of these gender stereotypes by portraying women as overly dramatic and emotional and men as being incapable of expressing their feelings (or even experiencing emotions strongly). Gender roles refer specifically to behaviours that people are expected to perform based on their gender. For example, until recently, in mainstream North American culture, it was largely expected that when a man and a woman got married, the man would be the “breadwinner” who worked at a job outside the home, while the woman would stay at home to take care of domestic duties and childcare. Gender stereotypes and roles can change over time, as evidenced by women’s increased participation in the labour force in Canada, from 24% (of all eligible women aged 25 to 54) in 1953, to over 80% in the 21st century.
Perhaps the strongest gender stereotypes are those linked with expressive and instrumental traits, as defined above. Despite intense political activism promoting gender equality dating back as far as the 1970s, these stereotypes about instrumental and expressive traits have remained essentially unchanged. Cross-cultural research has revealed that this instrumental-expressive dichotomy exists in almost all cultures around the world. Male traits and roles generally tend to be viewed more positively than female traits and roles within our society (e.g., ambitious, independent, self-confident valued more than passive, dependent, emotional).
Besides personality traits, other gender stereotypes exist. For example, physical stereotypes of men as being tall and strong, and women as being soft and dainty. Certain occupations like truck driver, and engineer are associated with men; others like schoolteacher and nurse are associated with women. Other occupational stereotypes have changed over the course of time; for example, the majority of medical school and law school graduates are now women. We assume that men are good at fixing things around the house (I, personally, am abysmal at this), and women are better-suited to decorating the house. The acceptance of these gender stereotypes and their stability over time suggest they are deeply ingrained patterns of thinking.
The term androgyny is used to refer to a person who scores high on measures of masculinity and femininity. It should be noted that being androgynous doesn’t necessarily mean that one is gender fluid (i.e., shifting between male and female identities). Someone who’s androgynous might identify as exclusively female or exclusively male, or a mix of both (a non-binary identity.) Research suggests that androgynous individuals tend to be better adjusted compared to those who are high on just one type of trait (i.e., high-instrumental low-expressive males, and low-instrumental high-expressive females), as they have the flexibility to be nurturing or independent, depending on the situation.
Preschoolers learn to associate toys, articles of clothing, tools, household items, games, occupations, and aggressive behaviours with certain genders. Shown a picture of a male Scottish bagpiper wearing a kilt, 4-year-olds are likely to say “Men don’t wear skirts!” Studies have found that most 3- to 7-year-olds are firm about not wanting to be friends with a child who violates a gender stereotype (especially boys). Most toy sections at stores are organized by gender, with large signs denoting girls’ toys and boys’ toys, (a practice I find ridiculous!), which further teach and reinforce gender-stereotyped beliefs and expectations. In the next part of the slideshow, we will be considering several different theories which attempt to account for how children come to learn gender roles and form gender identities.
Social Learning View
Emphasizes two processes:
1. Modeling
The process by which children observe and imitate others.
- Differential Reinforcement
for engaging in gender-appropriate behavior.
- Treatment by Parents
Younger children receive more direct training in gender roles than older children
Bedroom decor
Toys
Reinforcement of gender-appropriate behaviour
Fathers more likely to encourage gender-appropriate behaviour
Children exposed to non-stereotyped adult models are less traditional in their beliefs
Esp. girls with career-oriented mothers - Treatment by Teachers
Often act in ways that maintain / extend gender roles taught at home
E.g., “I wish the boys would quiet down like the girls!” - Peers
Same-sex peers positively reinforce each other for “gender-appropriate” play
3-to-7-year-olds disapprove of gender-role violations (esp. boys)
Different styles of social influence:
Boys: commands, threats, physical force (constricting)
Girls: polite requests; concern for partner’s needs (enabling)
- The Media
male characters have outnumbered female characters in TV shows and movies
Smith et al., 2013
Family films: 28% female
Children’s shows: 31% female
The times they are a-changing (slowly)
Gender stereotypes prevalent in storybooks, cartoons, music videos, commercials, video games
Traditional male characters display assertiveness, creativity; females are submissive, dependent
but we do see trends toward more female characters with instrumental traits…
… and realistic depictions of transgender / non-binary characters
Cognitive-Developmental View
Central Idea:
A child’s own conceptions are central to the formation of gender-role identity
Knowledge guides behaviour
Kohlberg’s Three Stages:
1. Basic Gender Identity:
Labeling oneself as a boy or girl
- Gender Stability:
Understanding the stability of gender over time
Associate certain toys, activities with girls / boys - Gender Constancy:
Understanding gender is invariant across situations
Occurs around same time that children achieve conservation (Piaget’s concrete-operational stage)
Criticism: a binary view of gender; fails to account for transgender and non-binary identities
Olson & Gulgoz (2018)
Longitudinal study of children with non-conforming gender identities who had made a social transition
Most knew their identity with certainty from young age (around when children reach gender constancy stage)
…but others follow different developmental arcs (e.g., cisgender, then gender-fluid in 20s or 30s)
Lawrence Kohlberg (most well-known for his theory of moral development that we came across in Chapter 12) proposed a cognitive-developmental theory of gender typing (1966) which differs from the social learning view, in that he believed children developed stable gender identities before they actively sought out same-gender role models who they looked to for guidance regarding how they should behave. Kohlberg’s theory was influenced by Piaget’s work, as Kohlberg proposed that children actively construct knowledge about gender, in the same way that Piaget theorized children construct knowledge about the physical world. Kohlberg believed that children actively seek to understand the meaning of gender through observing and interacting with the world around them, and that this took place in stages, from the age of 2 to about age 7.
Kohlberg observed that by age 2 or 3, children identify themselves as either a girl or a boy, but they believe that people can change gender easily (e.g., a girl could grow up to be a man). By age 3 or 4, most children believe that gender is fairly stable but may believe that changing one’s hairstyle, clothing, or gender-appropriate activities will also change a person’s gender. For example, if a boy put on a dress, and grew his hair, and looked like a girl, that he would become a girl.
Between 4 and 7 years of age, children understand gender constancy, the recognition that someone stays the same gender even though they may appear to change by wearing different clothes or changing their hair length. Kohlberg maintained that this is similar to their understanding that the amount of a substance is conserved even when its appearance is altered (e.g., a ball of clay remains the same volume, even when crushed flat; and a glass of water has the same volume when it’s poured from a short glass into a tall glass). According to Kohlberg, once gender constancy is attained, children begin to seek out and attend to same-gender models to learn how to behave. “Since I’m a girl, I should like to do girl things, so I need to find out what these are.” Other theories, including the one we will look at next (Gender Schema Theory), suggest that gender-typed behaviour, including toy preferences, occurs well before children have come to understand gender constancy.
Support for Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental theory of gender identity comes from cross-cultural research showing that pre-school children in more than 20 different cultures progress through the stages of gender identity in the sequence that he described. Where the theory falls short, at least from a modern perspective, is that it doesn’t take into consideration individuals who identify as transgender, non-binary, or gender-fluid.
Only in recent years has there been any research specifically focused on gender-nonconforming children (and adults, retrospectively reporting their experiences), their gender identity development, and their well-being. Kristina Olson and Selin Gulgoz began conducting a longitudinal study in 2013 with a sample of over 300 transgender and gender-nonconforming youth who had already made a social transition – that is, they were currently identifying and living their lives with a gender identity different from the one that was assigned to them at birth. In their first published finding from this study, the researchers reported that the majority of the children in their sample said they knew with certainty from a young age what their true gender identity was (i.e., they had a sense of gender constancy regarding their identified gender, rather than their assigned gender). In fact, these children’s self-ratings of gender identity and gender preferences mirrored those of an age-matched sample of cisgender children. And most of the children in the sample reported an increase in their mental health and well-being once they had transitioned to their identified gender, especially if they had the support of their families.
We should note, however, that there are also individuals who have a cisgender identity throughout childhood, and only begin to identify as transgender, non-binary, or gender-fluid during adolescence, or even later in adulthood. As such, Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental View remains an incomplete understanding of gender identity, and more research in this area is necessary.
Gender Schema View
Gender Schemas: masculine and feminine categories used to organize experiences and interpret gender-related information
-incorporate everything a child knows about gender
Martin et al. (1995)
4-5 year-old children shown gender-neutral items (e.g., bells, magnets) and told they were “for boys” or “for girls”
Girls preferred to explore “girl” items; boys preferred to explore “boy” items;
Martin and Halverson’s (1981) Gender Schema Theory includes features of both Social Learning and Cognitive-Developmental theories. This theory is organized as a mental model that explains how environmental pressures and children’s cognitions work together to shape gender typing. As soon as most pre-schoolers can label and grasp the stability of their own gender (around age 2 or 3), they select gender schemas that are consistent with it. Children decide that certain toys, clothes, and activities are associated with girls/women, and others with boys/men. Based on their experiences with adults in their lives, a 5-year-old might declare that only men can use a barbecue, or only women can wear make-up. When children make these types of statements, it’s best to gently point out that this isn’t the case, by providing examples that violate the stereotype.
We will illustrate Gender Schema theory with the following example. Suppose that a boy sees a truck. He says to himself “I’m a boy… should boys play with trucks?” If the boy answers yes, this toy is relevant for him, he will approach it, explore it, and learn more about it. If, on the other hand, he sees a doll, and decides that boys shouldn’t play with dolls, he’ll respond by avoiding the “gender-inappropriate” toy. Some children, however, are gender aschematic; that is, they seldom view the world in gender-linked terms, and will simply ask themselves “Do I like this toy or not?”
Martin et al.’s (1995) experiment provides further evidence in support of Gender Schema Theory. It would be a stretch to argue that magnetic toys would naturally appeal more to children of one gender than another. Yet children told that certain toys (including bells, magnets, a magnifying glass, and a melon baller) were specifically “for boys” or “for girls” tended to show much higher interest in the items that were labelled as being for their gender, and less interest in the exact same items when labelled as being for a different gender. Furthermore, children expected that other children of their gender would feel the same way about the toys.
Biological Influences
- Evolutionary-based differences
-in distant past, traits with adaptive value (assertiveness & competitiveness in males, kindness & nurturing in females) were selected for
Criticism: overly deterministic; ignores environmental / cultural influences on gender
- Hormones
Children show strong preference for same-sex peers (at age 6, 11:1)
Hormones (androgens) affect play styles
Androgen abnormalities (during prenatal development)
- E.g., congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
Partial male genitalia in genetic females
- E.g., androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)
Genetic males born with female external genitalia
As we’ve seen throughout the slideshow, a good deal of gender-stereotyped knowledge and behaviours are transmitted to children through direct teaching. Although no contemporary theorist would say that biology is destiny, there are many who would argue that our biological make-up has led females and males to be uniquely suited to particular roles, which have served adaptive functions in human history. For instance, several thousand years ago, the adult lives of our male ancestors were largely oriented toward competing for mates and providing for their families, that of our female ancestors toward homemaking and rearing children. As a result of this division of labour, men who exhibited instrumental traits, such as assertiveness, and competitiveness, were more likely to be chosen as mates by women, and women who displayed expressive traits (e.g., warmth and nurturing) were the preferred mates of men. As such, men high in instrumental traits and women high in expressive traits would have been more likely to reproduce and pass on their genes.
Evolutionary theory has received a fair deal of criticism for its deterministic view of gender roles, and it can be argued that what was adaptive at one time in human history (e.g., during hunter-gatherer times, and settled agriculture times, thousands of years ago), isn’t necessarily adaptive in modern times. In present day North American society, as we value gender equality, it pays for both women and men to have a balance of instrumental and expressive traits (i.e., androgyny) rather than to be high in one and low in the other.
Sex hormones affect brain development and neural activity in many animal species, including humans. As early as the preschool years, children usually seek out playmates of the same sex; this occurs in most other species of mammals, as well. Children spend about 11 times as much time with same-sex playmates at age 6 than they do with other-sex playmates. And while socialization plays a role in these preferences, research by Alexander and colleagues (2009) suggests that differences in androgen levels among girls and boys contribute to differences in preferred styles of play, leading to rougher, noisier, movements among boys, and calmer, gentler actions among girls. Then, as children interact with peers, they choose partners whose interests and behaviours are compatible with their own. By age 2, girls often appear overwhelmed by boys’ more rambunctious behaviour. Non-human primates (chimpanzees, orangutans) react similarly as well – when a male juvenile initiates rough play, other males join in, whereas females withdraw. During the pre-school years, most girls like to play in pairs because of a common preference for quieter activities involving cooperative roles. Most boys come to prefer larger group play with other boys, who share a desire to run, climb, play-fight, and compete.
As mentioned earlier, a person’s biological sex isn’t always neatly categorized in a binary fashion. In rare instances, recessive genes can cause a person who is genetically female (XX) or genetically male (XY) to develop sexual characteristics that don’t correspond with their genotype. This can be caused either by genetic females being exposed to higher levels of androgens in utero, resulting in congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), or the malfunctioning of androgen receptors in genetic males, resulting in androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS). Compared to typical girls, girls with CAH are more likely to choose physically active forms of play, prefer male playmates, and avoid playing with dolls. Genetic males with AIS commonly self-identify as girls (and later, as women), and show preferences for feminine-stereotyped interests. As children, individuals with either of these conditions tend to strongly resist parental attempts to socialize them to conform with their assigned gender if it doesn’t match their self-identified gender.
Raising a Gender-Neutral Child
What benefits do you see in raising a gender-neutral child?
What challenges would a parent and/or child face?
Is it feasible in our society?
There is a small, but growing movement of parents who attempt to raise their children in a gender-neutral fashion from birth. In many cases, these parents don’t reveal their children’s biological sex to anyone (including close family, friends, or strangers) after birth, and use gender-neutral pronouns when talking to or about their child until their child has decided upon their gender identity. At the link above, watch a video about one of these families, and think about how you would answer the questions above.
Reducing Gender Stereotyping
- permit children to choose among diverse toys and activities
- avoid transmitting gender stereotypes of achievement areas
- discuss gender biases with children
- arrange for mixed-gender interaction
- don’t assume you know someone’s gender until they self-identify
We’ve seen how pervasive gender stereotypes are in society, and how resistant they can be to change, once established. But the younger children start learning about different gender identities, and about gender stereotypes and why they aren’t always correct, the easier it will be for them to broaden their gender-related schemas. There’s no rule that says girls have to play with certain toys, and boys with others. Allow children to choose toys based on their interests, rather than what stores deem as “appropriate” for girls or boys. When discussing school-related achievements, avoid talking about how “boys are better than girls” in certain areas, or vice versa; point out that a strong effort improves competence in all areas. Discuss why certain roles (such as prime minister or president) have been linked to one gender, emphasizing the environmental reasons why this has been the case; teach children this is not because of innate sex or gender differences. Even if children prefer to play with same-gender peers, it’s important to provide some opportunity for them to interact with other-gender peers as well, especially if they don’t have any siblings of another gender. And finally, if a younger child sees a person and asks you if the person is a boy or a girl, this can be a good opportunity to explain to the child how you can’t always tell what gender a person identifies with based on their outward appearance. Explaining the concepts of transgender and non-binary identities to a younger child can be challenging, but kids learn fast, and the more exposure they have to gender diversity, the more accepting they will be of people’s differences.
