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1010 exam > 1103 Exam > Flashcards

1103 Exam Flashcards

1
Q

what is Anthropometry

A

the measurement of body size, weight and proportions.

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2
Q

what is body composition

A

Measurement of what proportion of the body is made up of: Bone, fat, muscle, fat mass + water

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3
Q

what is fat- free mass (FFM)

A

Protein, mineral+ water

Essential fat= minimum amount of fat needed for normal physiological functions (3-5% for males + 8-12% for females)

Non- essential fat= subcutaneous fat (under skin) and visceral fat (around organs)

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4
Q

What are the methods of partitioning

A

Direct= most accurate, requires dissection+ chemical analysis of a corpse

Indirect= something other than %BF is measured and used to make an assumption

Doubly indirect partitioning=

Use an indirect measure (assumption 1)

Apply that result to a regression equation (assumption 2)

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5
Q

BMI

A

based off the principle that height is proportional to weight

Used to estimate degree of obesity in large population studies, and is not useful to athletes

BM (kg)/ Height (m^2)

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6
Q

Waist- to- hip- ratio

A

Provides indication of disease risk

Waist (cm)/ hips (cm)

Increased risk of disease when WHR >0.80 in women and >0.90 in men

Waist= narrowest point/ midpoint between the lowest rib+ top of the hip bone (iliac crest)

Hips= feet together, at level of greatest gluteal protrusion

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7
Q

Densitometry

A

Based on the principle that fat is less dense and more buoyant than lean tissue.
Body density (Db) is calculated using body mass (kg) and body volume (L).
Formula to estimate body fat: % Fat = 4.950/Db - 4.500.
Techniques:

2C model (indirect).
Fully submerged in water or placed in an air chamber to measure volume displaced.
Lung air volume measured using helium.
Key Assumptions:

Fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM) are constant.
Fat: 90% triglycerides with a stable density.
Fat-free mass: Muscle and bone densities vary based on factors like age and lifestyle

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8
Q

Dual- energy X- ray absorptiometry (DEXA)

A
  • 3- C model
  • low energy X-rays are passed through the body which are absorbed differently by bone and tissue.
  • Estimation of FM and FFM is based on assumptions regarding hydration, potassium content, or tissue density.
  • Provides data on whole body and regional (e.g., arms, legs and trunk).

Sources of error
- Assumptions of %FM is based on ‘trunk thickness’.
- Hydration and nutritional status (e.g., glycogen).
- Body composition estimation algorithms are not developed on athletes.

Advantages: High degree of accuracy, quick (5-20 minutes), noninvasive, includes bone mineral density, segmentation of body part (injured athletes)

Disadvantages: Expensive Need a referral from GP Requires a trained technician Small radiation exposure

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9
Q

Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA)

A

FFM =TBW/0.732
FM= body mass –FFM
- 4C model: doubly Indirect.
- The BIA provides a measure of total body
water (TBW), to provide estimate of FFM.
- Single vs multi-frequency.
- Based on the principal that fat is less conductive than lean tissue.
- Most TBW is found in FFM

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10
Q

Skinfold Calipers

A
  • 2C model, double indirect
  • Measured double thickness of skin+ subcutaneous fat
  • Using marked anatomical landmarks
  • %BF is based on measurements of subcutaneous fat mass
  • Skinfold (mm) → body density → %BF

Advantages: Quick, cheap, portable, relatively accurate
Disadvantages: Takes practice and skill, invasive, and does not take into consideration fat distribution

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11
Q

Somatotyping

A

Describing the phenotype of a human physique of a number of traits that related to body size and composition.

➢ Endomorphy: describes the relative degree of adiposity , roundness, softness and relative volume of the abdominal trunk.
➢ Mesomorphy: Describes the relative muscle mass.
➢ Ectomorphy: Describes the relative slenderness of the body.
Measurements you need: Height (cm), Weight (kg), Triceps, subscapular, supraspinal, calf skin fold (mm), Width of elbow and knee joint (cm) , Circumference of flexed bicep and calf muscle (cm)

Enter values into equations to get a three-numeral rating based on each somatotype.

▪ A rating of 1 to 7 is given, where 1 is the minimum and 7 is the maximum.

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12
Q

what are the 4 Receptors for feedback

A

Thermoreceptors

Chemical receptors (pH levels, Ions, Glucose levels)

Photoreceptors (in the eye to control iris diameter)

Osmoreceptors in the brain (regulation of water balance)

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13
Q

signal transduction effects

A
  • Changes to permeability, transport properties, or electrical state of the plasma membrane
  • Altering metabolism
  • Changing proliferation rate/ growth
  • Causing secretion of other molecules
  • Inducing contractions/ other physical activities
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14
Q

endocrine signaling

A

Production of a hormone from a gland that travels within the blood stream to other organs

Generally have systemic effects E.g adrenaline= increase HR= increase energy production etc.

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15
Q

paracrine signaling

A

Secretions that act only on neighboring cells

Prominently featured in development E.g development of arm cells with signal to adjacent cells to develop into hands

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16
Q

autocrine signaling

A

Signaling molecules produced by the cell affect the cell itself

Occurs in certain immune cell activations

Common in some cancers which secrete HGH to drive their own proliferation

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17
Q

epithelial tissue

A

Lines all body surfaces, both internal and external

Depending on location, structure and arrangement of the cells can vary greatly

Lung tissue is thin= gaseous exchange, whereas esophagus is thick to provide protection

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18
Q

Limbic Lobe

A
  • Learning+ memory
  • Included hippocampus= critical for learning
  • Emotion processing
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19
Q

Brain Stem

A
  • Involved in the control of: CV system, Respiratory, alertness/ awareness, pain sensitivity control
  • Damage= life threatening
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20
Q

Pituitary Gland

A
  • Direct access to peripheral blood circulation
  • Secretes many hormones- important for growth/ regulation
  • Anterior+ posterior divisions

Anterior
-HGH, Gonadotrophs, thyroid stimulating hormone, corticotropin
Posterior
-Vasopressin, oxytocin

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21
Q

astrocytes

A
  • Subset of neuroglia
    – Neuroglia outnumber neurons 3:1 in the cortex
    – Astrocytes account for 20 – 40% of all glial cells
  • Has many roles in supporting brain/ SC
22
Q

Neurovascular coupling

A
  • Entry of substances onto the brain= tightly controlled by ‘blood- brain barrier’
    – Important in maintaining controlled environment
    – Prevents entry of pathogens
23
Q

microglia

A
  • Surveying= Move through brain to detect damage/ invasion- can include pathogens, plaques, DNA, fragments or dead cells
  • Can help regulate synapse number by eliminating un- used pathways
  • Phagocytosis= Once the microglia find they become activated and engulf invading pathogens, dead cells and debris
  • Secretion of inflammatory Mediators= activated by cytokine IFN-y to fight infection
24
Q

what are the 2 main neurotransmitters

A

Noradrenaline= for sympathetic
Acetylcholine= for parasympathetic

25
Q

what is an action potential and how does it work?

A

Propagation of an electrical signal along a neuron
- We refer to the inside relative outside- therefore inside is more negative than outside of the cell

Depolarisation= membrane becoming more positive (less polarised)
Hyperpolarisation= membrane becomes more negative

  • The potentials on each side are largely balanced due to distribution of sodium, potassium, chloride and negatively charged proteins
26
Q

Resting membrane potential pump

A

The pump has two stable configurations

  1. The pump binds an ATP molecule and 3 intracellular Na+ ions
  2. ATP is hydrolysed which phosphorylates the pumps and changes its shape
  3. This new configuration has a low affinity for Na+ so they are released
  4. Two extracellular K+ ions are bound which dephosphorylates and reverts it to the original shape
  5. The original configuration has a low affinity for K+ so they are released
27
Q

What comprises a sensory system

A

receptor- detects a stimulus
neural pathway- signal must be carries from receptor to brain
CNS processing- integrates sensations in the brain

28
Q

Touch

A

Pressure that moves skin forces open ion channels in the skin-graded potential

Types of Touch receptors:
Merkel’s= sustained pressure

Meissner’s= change in texture

Ruffini= Skin Stretch

Pacinian= Deep Pressure

29
Q

Hearing

A
  • Sound energy moves as waves of compressed air molecules
  • outer+ middle ear function to amplify sound
  • ear drum is connected to ossicles (3 tiny bones), which function to convert sound energy into mechanical energy
30
Q

Anatomy of the eye

A

Cornea: Contributes to refractive power which focuses light to the retina

Iris: Controls amount of light entering the eye

Lens: Works with cornea to focus light into retina, Fine tunes focus

Retina: Layer of photoreceptors, responsible for turning light energy into electrical

Fovea: Specialised area of the retina with very high acuity

Cones: Detects colour, active only in bright light

Rods: Active in dark conditions, mostly B/W

31
Q

Receptors in the eye

A

Light energy triggers the conversion of 11-cis retinal to all trans- retinal

  1. In the dark, the retinal cells are consistently depolarising and releasing neurotransmitter onto the bipolar cells
  2. These cell inhibit the ganglion cells which lead to the brain
  3. Thus, in the light, the photoreceptor stops releasing neurotransmitter to bipolar cells which stops the inhibition of the ganglion cells
32
Q

Detecting the five primary tastes

A

Salty
- Acts on membrane channel that allows salt ions to flow through
- Results in depolarisation of cell+ release of neurotransmitters

Sour
- Acts on membrane channel that allows H ions to flow through
- Causes closure of leaky K+ channels= depolarisation of cell+ release of neurotransmitters

Sweet
- Acts on a G- Protein coupled receptor causing signaling cascade resulting in closure of leaky K+ channels= depolarisation of cell+ release of neurotransmitters

Bitter
- Also acts on G- protein coupled receptor leading to signaling cascade= opening of calcium channels= depolarisation of cell and release of neurotransmitters

Umami
- Glutamate receptors are G- Coupled protein receptors which cause signaling cascade resulting in opening= depolarisation of cell and release of neurotransmitters

33
Q

what is the purpose of bone

A

Structural support

Protects internal organs

Allows movement by providing site for muscle attachment

Reservoir for mineral homeostasis

Provides environment for hematopoiesis

34
Q

What are the 5 types of bone

A

long, short, flat, sesamoid, irregular

35
Q

Red vs yellow bone marrow

A

The proportion of bone marrow changes with age, being totally red at birth and gradually accumulating more yellow with age

Red Bone Marrow
- Contains high numbers of hemopoietic stem cells (differentiate into red and white cells + platelets)
- Located in central skeleton and ends of large bones

Yellow Bone Marrow
- Contains high numbers of adipocytes
- Primarily found in cavity of long bones

36
Q

what are osteoclasts

A

Bone ‘eating’ cells

Secrete H+ ions to acidify and break down underlying bone

37
Q

synapse- neurotransmitter release

A

Synampse= Point of communication b/w neurons , Largely self- contained

Neurotransmitter release
1. When the action potential reached the axon terminal it opens voltage gated calcium channels

  1. Calcium entry triggers vesicles containing neurotransmitter to be released into the synapse
  2. The neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the neighbouring dendritic spine and cause a graded potential

Neurotransmitter release= Very slow compared to action potential, Only a single synapse between our outer+ lower motor neurons

38
Q

what makes up the olfactory epithelium

A

Basal cells: Stem cells that give rise to receptor cells

Supporting Cells: Mechanical support for olfactory receptor neurons, secretions contribute to mucus layer

Bowman Gland: Contributes to serous secretions to mucus layer

Olfactory Receptor Neurons: Terminal contains 10-30 non- motile cilia which contain receptors to detect odours

39
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Bone ‘building’ cells- form the major component of bones

Secrete hydroxyapatite

As the osteoblasts secrete minerals, they become encased immobile, transitioning to osteocytes

These osteocytes then form tight junctions which isolate bone from extracellular fluid

40
Q

Classification of joints

A

Fiborous
-No movement
-Bone that have fused together during development
-Composed mainly of collagen

Cartilaginous
-Some movement
-Connected entirely by cartilage

Synovial
-Freely movable
-Feature a joint cavity filled with fluid

41
Q

Sliding Filament Model

A

Ca binds to troponin, moves tropomyosin off actin, allowing myosin to bind

Globular heads at opposite ends of the thick fillament attach to the thin fillament and pull inwards

This shortens the sarcomere and contracts the overall muscle

42
Q

Crossbridge Cycling

A
  1. Myosin head binds to the actin filament
  2. Power stoke phase occurs. Here the myosin head pivots and pulls on the actin filament
  3. ATP binds to myosin head, detaching it from actin filament
  4. Myosin head hydrolyses the ATP molecules, resetting itself for another cycle
43
Q

Recruitment

A

Recruitment of more muscle fibres= more force

Activated in order from small -> large as this allows the grading of the amount of force to perform task

44
Q

Summation

A

While the size of the action potential can’t be changed, the frequency at which they fire can be

If a second action potential fires before the first has a chance to relax, the contractions build upon one another

This occurs because:
1. Muscle contracts from a higher baseline
2. There is still calcium left within the cell which increases the amount of cross bridges

45
Q

Antigens

A

Molecular structures that can be recognised by their physical shape by ‘antigen recognition structures’ on the surface of immune cells (WBCs)

46
Q

innate immunity

A

Non- specific

Very fast

Non- adaptive (no –memory)

Natural barriers, secreted molecules, phagocytosis, cell lysis

Recognition is via

-Limited Number of pathogen pattern receptors (antigen recognition)

-Receptors of chemokines, cytokines+ complement

47
Q

Adaptive Immunity

A

More specialised than innate

Works only after 2-10 days

Based on antigen- recognition molecules that can distinguish foreign antigens

Distinguishes self from non- self

48
Q

B- Cells

A

produced in bone marrow

Memory

Naïve, effector, plasma, memory

Immunoglobins

Humoral immunity

49
Q

T- Cells

A

produced in bone marrow+ Thymus

Naïve, effector (cytotoxic, helper, regulatory), memory

MHC proteins

Cell mediated immunity

50
Q

What are the 3 tissues of the immune system?

A

Primary lymphoid organs
- Organs and tissues where lymphocytes are produced

Secondary lymphoid organs
-Organs and tissues where lymphocytes:
-Have contact with foreign antigens
-Undergo clonal expansion
-Mature into effector cells

Lymph vasculature
-Vessels that collect and circulate lymph fluid

51
Q

Thymus

A

Pre- T cells from bone marrow migrate ti thymus where they are differentiated into mature, naive T-cells

Most active during infancy

After puberty, thymus undergoes involution

52
Q

Spleen

A

Sits in upper abdomen near the stomach

Filters blood and removed dying RBCs

Removal of opsinised bacteria

Removal of any self- reactive cells that have escaped the bone marrow

1010 exam (4 decks)

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