1.1 Systemic Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards
1
Q
divisions of the skeletal system
A
- axial skeleton (80 bones)
- appendicular skeleton (126 bones)
2
Q
skeletal system divisions: axial skeleton
A
skull
spinal column
ribs
sternum
3
Q
skeletal system divisions: appendicular skeleton
A
upper extremities
shoulder/pectoral girdle (scapula & clavicle)
lower extremities
pelvic girdle (ilium, ischium, & pubis)
4
Q
Roles of the skeletal system
A
supports body weight transfers body weight body movement muscle & ligament attachment organ protection bone marrow storage mineral storage
5
Q
bone classification by shape
A
long short flat irregular sesamoid wormian
6
Q
bone classification by shape: long
A
long cylindrical shaft (diaphysis) protruding ends (epiphyses) function as levers example - humerus & fibula
7
Q
bone classification by shape: short
A
short & relatively symmetrical
no diaphysis
example - carpals & tarsals
8
Q
bone classification by shape: flat
A
flat or curved surface
example - scapula & ilium
9
Q
bone classification by shape: irregular
A
irregular-shaped bones
example - maxilla & vertebra
10
Q
bone classification by shape: sesamoid
A
round (sesame seed shaped)
enbedded within a tendon
provide protection & leverage/mechanical advantage
example - patella & sesamoid bones of great toe
11
Q
bone classification by shape: wormian
A
tiny bones found in the suture joints of the cranium
12
Q
anatomy of long bones
A
diaphysis (shaft) epiphyseal (growth) plate epiphyses articular (hyaline) cartilage periosteum endosteum medullary (marrow) cavity
13
Q
anatomy of long bones: diaphysis (shaft)
A
cylinder shaped
wall (cortex) is composed of cortical (compact) bone tissue
inner surface is lined with cancellous (spongy or trabecular) bone
contains the medullary (marrow) cavity
14
Q
anatomy of long bones: epiphyseal (growth) plate
A
cartilaginous
separate epiphysis & diaphysis early in life
both ends of the bone grow from this plate
replaced by bone (close) as skeleton matures
some do not complete close until age 25
15
Q
antomy of long bones: epiphyses
A
proximal & distal ends of a long bone
composed primarily of cancellous (spongy or travecular) bone that is surrounded by a layer of cortical bone)
wider surface area increases joint stability
articular (hyaline) cartilage covers the articular surface of the epiphyses
16
Q
anatomy of long bones: articular (hyaline) cartilage
A
covers articular surfaces of bones
protects from joint wear & tear
provides shock absorption
poor blood supply
17
Q
anatomy of long bones: periosteum
A
fibrous membrane that surrounds the diaphysis
attachment site for tendons & ligaments
contains bone forming/repairing cells & blood vessels
18
Q
anatomy of long bones: endosteum
A
fibrous membrane that lines the walls of the medullary (marrow) cavity
contains bone forming/repairing cells
19
Q
anatomy of long bones: medullary (marrow) cavity
A
tube-like space located within the diaphysis
contains bone marrow
20
Q
skeleton formation
A
endochondral ossification
intramembranous ossification
21
Q
endochondral ossification
A
develops from hyaline cartilage
most common
22
Q
intramembranous ossification
A
occurs within a membrane
example - flat bones of the cranium
23
Q
bone tissue
A
composed of bone cells & matrix
24
Q
types of bone cells
A
osteoblasts
osteoclasts
osteocytes
25
types of bone cells: osteoblasts
build bone tissue
26
types of bone cells: osteoclasts
breakdown or resorb bone tissue
27
types of bone cells: osteocytes
located within lacunae (small cavities within a bone)
28
types of bone matrix
organic matrix
| inorganic matrix
29
organic matrix
composed primarily of collagen fibers
30
inorganic matrix
composed primarily of mineral salts & calcium
31
types of bone tissue
cortical (compact) bone
| cancellous (trabecular or spongy) bone
32
cortical (compact) bone
ordered & dense arrangement
found primarily in shaft of long bones
osteon - structural unit of compact bone
33
cancellous (trabecular or spongy) bone
irregular & sponge-like arrangement
found primarily in epiphyses of long bones
trabeculae - form the latticework of spongy bone
34
principles of physical stress on bone: wolff law
bone responds to the physical demands that are place on it
35
wolff law, increased stress -->
greater bone mass
36
wolff law, decreased stress -->
lesser bone mass
37
wolff law, excessive stress -->
bone pathology (i.e. stress fracture)
38
catilage
connective tissue
| composed of cartilage cells & matrix
39
cartilage cells
chondroblasts
| chondrocytes
40
cartilage cells: chondroblasts
cartilage builders
41
cartilage cells: chondrocytes
mature chondroblasts
42
cartilage matrix
```
collagen (provides tensile strength) & elastin (provides elasticity)
ground substance (proteoglycans -- glucosamine & chondroitin sulfate)
```
43
types of catilage
hyaline (articular) cartilage
fibrocartilage
elastic cartilage
44
cartilage types: hyaline (articular) cartilage
articular surfaces of bones
allows for smooth movement
protects from joint wear & tear
provides shock absorption
45
cartilage types: fibrocartilage
greater amount of collagen fibers
| example - interpubic disc & menisci
46
cartilage types: elastic cartilage
collagen & elastin fibers
| example - epiglottis & outer ear
47
menisci
crescent-shaped fibrocartilage (semilunar cartilage)
the medial & lateral menisci are located on the tibial plateau
the inner edge are thinner than outer edge
the outer edge are connected to the tibial plateau via the coronary ligaments
vacularity decliens as you move toward inner edge
medeial meniscus is attached to the MCL
increase area of articular surface
provide shock absorption & stability
48
labrum
a ring-shaped fibrocartilage
glenoid labrum - shoulder (attached to glenoid fossa)
long head of hte biceps brachii tendon attaches to the superior portion of glenoid labrum
acetabular labrum - hip (attached to acetabulum)
deepens articular surface of glenohumeral joint
provides shock absorption & stability
49
articular discs
disc-shaped fibrocartilage
increase area of articular surface
provide shock absorption & stability
example - pubic symphysis & stenoclavicular joint
50
ligaments
```
dense fibrous connective tissue
composed primarily of collagen w/ some elastin fibers
strong tensile strength
connect bone to bone
facilitate or limit movement
provide static joint stability
poor blood supply
```
51
intracapsular ligaments
located inside of joint capsule
52
extracapsular ligaments
located outside of joint capsule
53
joint capsule
surround synovial joints
has two layers
example - glenohumeral joint capsule
54
two layers of joint capsule
fibrous
| synovial membrane
55
layers of joint capsule - fibrous
outer layer
56
layers of joint capsule - synovial membrane
inner layer that secretes synovial fluid
57
bursae
synovial fluid-filled sacs
commonly found between tendon & bone or skin & bonecushion & reduce friction
example - olecranon bursa & prepatellar bursa
58
tendons
dense fibrous connective tissue
cord like shape
primarily composed of collagen with some elastin fibers
strong tensile strength
connect muscle to bone
transmit force from muscle to bone to create movement
surrounded by peritendinous or synovial tendon sheath
bound down by sheets of retinaculum
poor blood supply
59
properties of skeletal connective tissue
```
excitability (irritability)
contractility
extensibility (stretch)
elasticity (viscoelasticity)
plasticity (viscoplasticity)
creep
tensile strength
weight bearing
```
60
properties of skeletal connective tissue: excitability (irritability)
responsive to mechanical electrical, or chemical stimuli
61
properties of skeletal connective tissue: contractility
develops tension (unique to muscular tissue)
62
properties of skeletal connective tissue: extensibility (stretch)
lengthen
63
properties of skeletal connective tissue: elasticity (viscoelasticity)
returns to resting length after being stretched
64
properties of skeletal connective tissue: plasticity (viscoplasticity)
shape can change, and then retian orginal shape
65
properties of skeletal connective tissue: creep
gradual change in tissue shape when a slow and sustained force is applied
66
properties of skeletal connective tissue: tensile strength
able to withstand tension forces
67
properties of skeletal connective tissue: weight bearing
sustains compressive forces due to body weight
68
types of muscle tissue
skeletal (striated)
cardiac
smooth
69
skeletal (striated) muscle tissue
voluntary
| comprises skeletal muscle
70
cardiac muscle tissue
involuntary
| comprises the heart
71
smooth muscle tissue
involuntary
| comprises the walls of blood vessels & hollow organs
72
skeletal striated appearance
alternating A bands (dark) and I bands (light)
73
skeletal muscle tissue contains two types of tissue
skeletal muscle tissue
| fibrous fascia
74
tissue type: skeletal muscle tissue
skeletal muscle (fibers) cells - primary strcutrual & functional units
75
tissue type: fibrous fascia of muscle tissue
surrounds the entire muscle
| continues to form tendons
76
forms of skeletal muscle
paralle (longitudinal) muscles
| pennate muscles
77
forms of skeletal muscle: parallel (longitudinal) muscles
fibers arranged in parallel manner
78
forms of skeletal muscle: pennate muscles
fibers arranged in oblique manner from a central tendon
79
type of parallel (longitudinal) muscles
```
flat
fusiform (spindle)
trianglular (radiate)
strap
sphincter (circular)
spiral
```
80
parallel (longitudinal) muscles: flat
thin & broad
| example - rectus abdominis
81
parallel (longitudinal) muscles; fusiform (spindle)
spindle shaped
| example - brachioradialis
82
parallel (longitudinal) muscles; triangular (radiate)
fan shaped
| example - trapezius
83
parallel (longitudinal) muscles: strap
long parallel manner
| example - sartorius
84
parallel (longitudinal) muscles: sphincter (circular)
around a body opening
| example - orbicularis occuli
85
parallel (longitudinal) muscles: spiral
arranged around long axis
| example - latissimus dorsi
86
types of pennate muscles
unipennate
bipennate
multipennate
87
pennate muscles: unipennate
diagnonally arranged fibers from a central tendon on one side only
example - brachialis
88
pennate muscles: bipennate
diagonally arranged fibers from a central tendon on both sides
example - biceps femoris
89
pennate muscles: multipennate
diagonally arranged fibers from multiple tendons
| example - deltoid
90
skeletal muscle (cells) fibers
cylindrical shape
multinucleate
rich in mitochondria
contain myoglobin (oxygen-binding molecule)
comprise multiple muscle fibers (arrangement varies)
91
types of skeletal muscle fibers
```
type I (slow twitch)
type IIA (intermediate)
type IIB (fast twitch)
```
92
type I (slow twitch) muscle fibers
```
slow oxidated
small in diameter
red in color
high myoglobin content
slow speed of contraction
slow rate of fatigue
```
93
type IIA (intermediate) muscle fibers
```
fast oxidative glycolytic
intermediate in diameter
red in color
intermediate myoglobin content
feast speed of contraction
intermediate rate of fatigue
```
94
type IIB (fast twitch) muscle fibers
```
fast glycolytic
large in diameter
white in color
low myoglobin content
fast speed of contraction
fast rate of fatigue
```
95
roles of muscles
```
agonist
antagonist
synergist
fixators
nutralizers
```
96
roles of muscles: agonist
muscle that contracts
97
roles of muslces: antagonist
action oppostie of agonist
| muscle that lengthens
98
roles of muscles: synergist
assists agonist
increases movement efficiency
prevents unnecessary movement
99
roles of muscles: fixators
stops unwanted action at fixed attachment point of a muscle
100
roles of muscles: neutralizers
stops unwanted action at mobile attachment point of a muscle
101
muscle contraction (action)
development of muscle tension
102
primary types of muscle contractions
isometric
| isotonic
103
isometric (static) contraction
tension is developed within a muscle, but no joint movement occurs
104
isotonic (dynamic) contraction
tension is developed within a muscle that causes or controls movement of a joint
105
types of isotonic muscle contractions
concentric (positive) contraction
| eccentric (negative) contraction
106
concentric contraction
positive
| tension is developed as muscle lengthens
107
eccentric contraction
negative
| tension is developed as muscle shortens
108
sliding filament (mechanism) theory
physiological process of sarcomere shortening (muscle contraction)
energy source = adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
109
sliding filament mechanism process
action poteintial to muscle
sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions into the sarcoplasm
calcium ions attache to troponin molecules of actin filaments
troponin moves tropomyosin out of the way, which exposes actin-binding sites
myosin heads bridges between myosin and actin
each myosin cross bridge pulls actin toward the center of the sarcomere
cross bridges break
then reattach & continue as APs dictate
110
integumentary system components
```
skin
blood vessels
nerves
glands
sensory organs
hair
nails
```
111
skin functions
```
prevents deyhdration
prevent infection
regualates body temperature
provides sensory information
absorbs substances for example, medications
manufacture vitamin D
excretion (eg. electrolytes)
```
112
skin structure
epidermis
dermis
subcutaneous (hypodermis)
113
skin accessory structures
```
sebaceous (oil) glands
meibomian (tarsal) glands
suboriderous (sweat) glands
hair
nails
```
114
epidermis
```
outermost portion
epithelial cells
epidermal cells sytoplasm replace dwith keratin
no blood vessels
nourished by capillaries in the dermis
```
115
layers of epidermis
stratum basale (stratum germinativum)
stratum corneum
stratum lucidum
116
stratum basale (stratum germinativum)
closet to the dermis (produces new epidermal cells)
117
stratum corneum
outer layer of epidermis
118
stratum lucidum
found in thick skin (another layer that resists abrasion)
119
dermis
```
true skin
under the epidermis
ability to stretch extensively
accessory structures found in this layer
dermal papillae
```
120
composition of dermis
elastic connective tissue
blood vessels
nerves
121
dermal papillae
areas where dermis projects toward surface of epidermis (finger & foot prints)
122
subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)
below the dermis
| connects skin to the superficial muscles
123
composition of subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)
```
adipose tissue
loose connective tissue
blood vessels
nerves
nerve endings
```
124
accessory integumentary structures: sebaceous (oil) glands
```
sac-like structures
open to hair follicles
used for lubrication of skin/hair (prevents dryness)
meibomian glands
sebaceous cysts
```
125
sebaceous (oil) gland: meibomian glands
lubricate eyes
126
sebaceous (oil) gland: sebaceous cysts
blocked sebaceous gland with associated sebum accumulation
127
accessory integumentary structures: suboriferous (sweat) glands
function to cool the body
128
two primary types of sudoriferous (sweat) glands
eccrine
| apocrine
129
eccrine sweat glands
secretes sweat
130
apocrine sweat glands
axillae & groin (small number of sweat glands)
131
modified sudoriferous (sweat) glands
```
mammary glands
ceruminous glands (produce ear wax)
ciliary glands (eyelids)
```
132
accessory integumentary structures: hair
```
hair follicle
hair is not living (mostly keratin)
melanocytes
hair root
erector (arrector pili
```
133
hair: hair follicle
epithelial cells & connective tissue that encloses hair
134
hair: melanocytes
pigments that color hair
135
hair: hair root
portion of hair below the skin
136
hair: erector (arrector) pill
thin band of involuntary muscle
137
accessory integumentary strucutes: nails
```
hard keratin produced in stratum corneum
nail root
nail matrix
lunala (little moon)
cuticle
```
138
nail: nail root
proximal end of nail
139
nail: nail matrix
nail growth region
140
nail: lunala (little moon)
proximal nail over thickest portion of growth region
141
nail: cuticle
seals space between skin and nail plate
142
determining skin color
pigmentation (melanin production)
quality of circulating blood
substances in the blood
143
structural divisions of the nervous system
central nervous system (CNS)
| peripheral nervous system (PNS)
144
structural division of the nervous system: CNS
brain & spinal cord
145
structural division of the nervous system: PS
all nerves outside CNS
146
functional divisions of the nervous system
somatic nervous system
| autonomic nervous system (ANS)
147
somatic nervous system
voluntary
| motor nerve travels from spinal cord to skeletal muscle
148
somatic nervous system effector
skeletal muscle
149
autonomic nervous system
involuntary
150
autonomic nervous system effector
glands
cardiac muscle
smooth muscle
151
subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system
sympathetic nervous system
| parasympathetic nervous system
152
neuron structure
dendrites
axon
myelin sheath
neurilemma
153
neuron structure: dendrites
tree-like appearance
impulse to cell body
receptors recieve stimulus
154
neuron structure: axon
impulse away from cell body
| single fiber with end branches
155
neuron structure: myelin sheath
```
insulation around some nerves
produced by Schwann cells in the PNS
fatty material
speeds up conduction of APs
AP jumps from node to node instead of traveling entrie nerve length
small spaces (nodes of Ranview)
```
156
neuron structure: neurilemma
outer membranes of Schwann cells
| not found in CNS cells
157
types of neurons
afferent (sensory) neurons
efferent (motor) neurons
interneurons (central or association neurons)
158
afferent neurons
(sensory) toward CNS
159
efferent neurons
(motor) away from CNS
160
interneurons
(central or association neurons) within CNS
161
neuroglia
```
glial cells
found in CNS & PNS
nonconducting cells
multiply throughout life
brain tumors are usually caused by neuroglia
```
162
neuroglia: specialized functions
help repair cells
protect the nervous system
phagocytes
regulate fluid composition around the cells
scaffolding or supprot system for the nervous system
163
neuroglia: schwann cells
example of neuroglia in the PNS
164
neuroglia: astrocytes
example of neuoglia in CNS
165
neuroglia of the CNS
astrocytes (macroglia)
microglia
oligodendrocytes (oligodendroglia)
166
neuroglia of the CNS: astrocytes (macroglia)
star shaped
twist around nerve cells to support CNS
attach neurons to capillaries
protect brain from harm
167
neuroglia of the CNS: microglia
small in size
grow from monocytes
act as brain macrophages
engulf & destroy pathogens
168
neuroglia of the CNS: oligodendrocytes (oligodendroglia)
produce myelin sheath around CNS axons
| provide support in CNS
169
nerve impulse
```
resting potential
nerve impulse
AP
resting state
depolarization
repolarization
```
170
nerve impulse: resting potential
ionic charge along the plasma membrnae of an unstimulated nerve
171
nerve impulse: resting potential inside membrane
resting potential is negative
172
nerve impulse: resting potential outside membrane
resting potential is positive
173
inerve impulse
reverses membrane potential because of reversal of ion concentration
174
nerve impulse: AP
sudden electrical change in ion concentration
| AP = nerve impulse = salutatory conduction
175
nerve impulse: resting state
more Na+ outside & more K+ inside
176
nerve impulse: depolarization
energy allows diffusion of Na+ into cell membrane; increases charge inside to more positive
electrical, chemical, mechanical
177
nerve impulse: repolarization
membrane electrical charge returns to resting potential
178
repolarization - membrane electrical charge returns to resting potential
K+ channels open causing K+ to leave the cell
| simultaneously, cell uses active transport to move Na+ * K+ back to original concentrations called Na+/K+ pump
179
types of synapses
chemical
| electrical
180
chemical (gap) synapse
axon of presynaptic cell to dendrite of postsynaptic cell
axon stores neutotransmitters in end bulbs
AP causes end bulbs to fuse with dendrite & release neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft
neurotransmitter acts as a chemical signal generating AP of postsynaptic cell
181
electrical synapse
CNS, cardiac, & smooth muscle
| the membranes of presynaptic & postsynaptic cells are close enough for electrical charge to spread
182
neurotransmitters
stimulate or inhibit postsynaptic cells
183
most common neurotransmitters
epinephrine (adrenaline)
norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
acetylcholine (ACh) - neuromuscular junction
184
spinal cord
```
ends between L1 & L2 vertebrae (adults)
cauda equina
gray matter
white matter
white matter surrounds gray matter
gray commissure
central canal
ascending tracts
descending tracts
sensory information enters CNS through dorsal horn
motor information leaves CNS through ventral horn
```
185
gray matter in spinal cord
unmyelinated tissue
186
white matter in spinal cord
myelinated tissue
187
gray commissure in spinal cord
bridge right & left horns
188
central canal in spinal cord
center of gray commissure containing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
189
ascending tracts in spinal cord
afferent (sensory)
| white matter tracts carrying information toward the brain
190
descending tracts in spinal cord
efferent (motor)
| carry information toward the PNS
191
reflex arc
```
receptor
afferent neuron
CNS
efferent neuron
effector
```
192
reflex arc: receptor
detects stimulus
193
reflex arc: afferent neuron
transmits impulse toward CNS
194
reflex arc: CNS
interprets & organizes response
195
reflex arc: efferent neuron
transmits impulse from CNS to PNS
196
reflex arc: effector
response unit (muscle or gland)
197
Simplest reflex
Stretch reflex and spinal reflex
Does not involve brain, therefore termed spinal reflex
Predictable and reliable assessment of nervous system function
198
Order of simplest reflex
1. Receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. Dorsal horn
4. Interneuron
5. Ventral horn
6. Motor neuron
7. Effector
199
Number of spinal nerves
31 pairs
200
Spinal nerves attached to spinal cord by two roots
Dorsal root - sensory
| Ventral root - motor
201
Dorsal root has ganglion
Sensory gray matter outside CNS
202
All spinal nerves ......
Are mixed (sensory and motor)
203
Primary plexus in the body
Cervical
Brachial
Lumbar
Sacral
204
Cervical plexus
Sensory impulses from neck and back of head
Motor impulses to muscles of the neck
C1-4 with some C5 contribution
Contains cranial nerves XI and XII
205
Cervical plexus superficial nerve branches
Lesser occipital (C2-3)
Greater auric ulnar (C2-3)
Transverse cervical (C2-3)
Supraclavicular (C3-4)
206
Cervical plexus deep nerve branches
Ansa cervicalis - inferior/superior root (C1-4)
Phrenic nerve innervates the diaphragm (C3-5)
Segmental branches (C1-5)
207
Brachial plexus
Upper extremity and shoulder region
Each trunk turns into an anterior and posterior division
Division unite to form cords
208
How the brachial plexus runs
Nerve roots
Trunks
Divisions
Peripheral nerve
209
Brachial plexus: C5-T1
With some distribution from C4 to T2
210
Brachial plexus: C5-6
Superior trunk
211
Brachial plexus: C7
Middle trunk
212
Brachial plexus: C8-T1
Inferior trunk
213
Posterior cord of brachial plexus
Posterior divisions of the superior, middle, and inferior trunks
214
Medial cord of brachial plexus
Anterior divisions of the inferior trunk
215
Lateral cord of brachial plexus
Anterior divisions of the superior and middle trunk
216
Brachial plexus: root nerves
```
dorsal scapular (C5)
long thoracic (C5-7)
```
217
brachial plexus: trunk nerves
subclavius (C5-6)
| suprascapular (C5-6)
218
brachial plexus: posterior cord nerves
```
upper scapular (C5-6)
thoracodorsal (C6-8)
lower subscapular (C5-6)
axillary (C5-6)
radial (C5-T1)
```
219
brachial plexus: medial cord nerves
```
medial pectoral (C8-T1)
medial brachial cutaneous (C8-T1)
medial antebrachail cutaneous (C8-T1)
median (middle head) (C5-T1)
ulnar (C8-T1)
```
220
brachial plexus: lateral cord nerves
musculocutaneous (C5-7)
median (lateral head) (C5-7)
lateral pectoral (C5-7)
221
lumbar plexus
supplies anterolateral abdominal wall, external genitalia, and part of the lower extremity
L1-4
Roots --> anterior & posterior divisions
222
lumbar plexus: anterior division nerves
ilioinguinal (L1)
genitofemoral (L1-2)
obtrurator (L2-4)
223
lumbar plexus: posterior division nerves
iliohypogastric (T12-L1)
lateral femoral cutaneous (L2-3)
femoral (L2-4)
224
sacral plexus
supplies buttocks, perineum, and lower extremity
L4-S4
roots --> anterior & posterior divisions
225
sacral plexus: sciatic nerve
largest nerve in the body arising from sacral plexus
226
sacral plexus: anterior division nerves
nerve to quadratus femoris and inferior gemellus (L4-S1)
nerve to obturator internus and superior gemellus (L5-S2)
perforating cutaneous (S2-3)
tibial (L4-S3)
pudendal (S2-4)
227
sacral plexus:posterior division nerves
```
superior gluteal (L4-S1)
inferior gluteal (L5-S2)
piriformis (S1-2)
posterior cutaneous (S1-3)
common peroneal (L4-S2)
```
228
autonomic nervous system
regulates actions of glands, smooth muscles of hollow organs and vessels, and cardiac muscle
automatic - no conscious awareness
229
ANS divisions
sympathetic nervous system
| parasympathetic nervous system
230
Sympathetic Nervous system
fight or flight stress response
thoracic and lumbar spinal areas (T1-L2)
adrenergic actions - activated by adrenaline
mostly uses epinephrine and norepinephrine as neurotransmitter
acts as an accelerator of organ function
231
Sympathetic nervous system: sympathetic chains
two cord-like strands of ganglia
both sides of spinal column
lower neck to upper abdomen
232
sympathetic nervous system: flight or flight response
increases rate and force of heart contractions
increases blood pressure (BP)
increases basal metabolic rate (BMR)
decreases urinary and digestive systems
dilates pupils, bronchial tubes, and skeletal blood vessels
233
parasympathetic nervous system
reverses the fight or flight stress response
craniosacral region - brainstem (midbrain and medulla) and sacrum
cholinergic action - activated by ACh
acts as a depressor or decelerator of organ functions
234
cranial nerve I
olfactory
sensory
smell
235
cranial nerve II
optic
sensory
vision
236
cranial nerve III
```
oculomotor
motor
effect on pupullary reaction and size
elevation of upper eyelid
eye adduction and downward rolling
```
237
cranial nerve IV
trochlear
motor
upward eye rolling
238
cranial nerve V
trigeminal
mixed
sensory: sensation of nose, forehead, temple, scalp, lips, tongue, and lower jaw
motor: muscles of mastication
239
cranial nerve VI
abducens
motor
lateral eye movement
240
cranial nerve VII
facial
mixed
sensory: taste
motor: muscles of expression
241
cranial nerve VIII
vestibulocochlear (Acoustic or Auditory)
sensory
hearing and equilibrium
242
cranial nerve IX
glossopharyngeal
mixed
sensory: taste
motor: pharygeal muscles
243
cranial nerve X
vagus
mixed
sensory: gag reflex
motor: muscles of pharynx and larynx
244
cranial nerve XI
accessory
motor
trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles
245
cranial nerve XII
hypoglossal
motor
tongue movement
246
cranial nerves
12 pairs
named for position anterior to posterior
cranial nerves III to XII arise from brainstem
247
four categories of cranial nerve information
special sensory impulses
general sensory impulses
somatic motor impulses
visceral motor impulses
248
cranial nerve category: special sensory impulses
smell, taste, hearing, and vision
249
cranail nerve category: general sensory impulses
pain, touch, temperature, pressure, vibration, and deep muscle sensation
250
cranial nerve category: somatic motor impulses
voluntary control of skeletal muscle
251
cranial nerve category: visceral motor impulses
involuntary control of cardiac/smooth muscle, glands, and parasympathetic system
252
neural tube forms brain
prosencephalon (forebrain)
mesencephalon (midbrain)
rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
253
neural tube forms brain: prosencephalon (forebrain)
telencephalon - cerebral hemispheres
| diencephalon - thalamus and hypothalamus
254
neural tube forms brain: rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
metencephalon - pons and cerebellum
| myelecephalon - medulla oblongata
255
areas of the brain
cerebrum
diencephalon
brainstem
cerebellum
256
cerebrum
```
five paired lobes
largest portion
two convoluted hemispheres
corpus callosum connects right and left hemispheres
cerebral cortex - outer layer
```
257
diencephalon
between cerebrum and brainstem
thalamus and hypothalamus
thalamus sorts and redirects sensory inputs
hypothalalmus is responsible for homeostasis, ANS control, and pituitary gland control
258
brainstem
below the cerebrum
| connects cerebrum with spinal cord and diencephalon
259
three parts of brainstem
midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata
260
parts of brainstem: midbrain
vision and hearing
connects lower portion of brian to cerebrum
cranial nerves III and IV originate
261
parts of brainstem: pons
helps regulate respiration
mostly myelinated nerves
bridges cerebrum, cerebellum, and braiinstem
cranial nerves V and VIII originate
262
parts of brainstem: medulla oblongata
```
connects brain with spinal cord
controls vital functions (e.g. heart beat, respiration)
highly myelinated
motor fibers decussate
cranial nerves IX to XII originate
```
263
part of brainstem, medulla oblongata: three centers
respiratory
cardiac
vasomotor
264
cerebellum
coordinates voluntary muscles
balance and muscle tone maintenance
outer covering - gray matter
inner area - white matter
265
five lobes of cerebrum
```
frontal lobe
parietal lobe
temporal lobe
occipital lobe
insula
```
266
frontal lobe of cerebrum
primary motor control area
speech centers (written and motor)
conscious control of skeletal muscle
267
parietal lobe of cerebrum
primary sensory area
somatesthetic sensation
temperature interpretion
distance, size, and shape interpretation
268
parietal lobe of cerebrum: somatesthetic sensation
sensation arising from cutaneous, muscle, tendon, and joitn receptors
269
temporal lobe of cerebrum
auditory centers including interpretation and association of auditory information
olfactory area
270
occipital lobe of cerebrum
vision and coordination of eye movment
visual receiving and association areas
read with understanding
271
insula of cerebrum
memory
integration of other cerebral activities
deep within each hemisphere
272
basal nuclei (basal ganglia)
masses of gray matter composed of neuron cell bodies
located dep within the white matter of the cerebrum
function to control vomuntary movements
secrete dopamine
273
cerebral cortex
outer 2 to 4 mm covering of the cerebrum
conscious thought, memory, reasonsing, and abstract mental functions
thought processes (e.g. association, judgement, and discrimination)
voluntary actions
gray matter with underlying hite matter
folds and grooves are called convolutions
elevated folds are called gyri
depressed grooves are called sulci
274
left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is the language area
broca area
| wernicke area
275
left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is the language area: broca area
frontal lobe
| motor aphasia
276
left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is the language area: wernicke area
speech comprehension center
| found in temproal lobe
277
Corpusd callosum
band of white matter
| bridge permitting impulses to cross between cerebral hemispheres
278
cerebrospinal fluid
```
formed in the ventricles of the brain
supports nervous tissue
shock absorber
carries nutrients and waste
arachnoid villi in dural sinuses
```
279
limbic system
part of the brain that controls the emotional state (with the hypothalamus)
nuclei and fiibers that form a ring around the brainstem
stimulates the reticular formation
hippocampus - long-term memory (LTM) and learning
280
reticular formation
network along brainstem
| influences sleep and wakefullness
281
meninges
dura mater
arachnoid
pia mater
282
dura mater of meninges
outermost layer
| thickest and toughest
283
two layers of dura mater of meninges
outer layer to cranium
| some separation forming dural sinuses
284
archnoid of meninges
middle layers
web-like
allows CSF to flow between dura and arachnoid
285
pia mater of meninges
innermost payer
attached to CNS nervous tissue
follows contours of CNS structures
holds blood vessels supplying oxygen and nutrition to CNS
286
rhombencephalon
metencephalon - pons and cerebellum
| myelencephalon
287
rhombencephalon: metencephalon - pons
cranial nerves V, VI, VII, VIII and respiratory centers
288
rhombencephalon: metencephalon - cerebellum
proprioceptors connect here
289
rhombencephalon: myelencephalon
medulla oblongata
cranial nerves - VIII, IX, X, XI, and XII
vital centers invovled in regulation of breathing and cardiovascular responses
290
thalamus
part of diencephalon
gray mater
sorts impulses and directs to appropriate areas in cerebral cortex
291
hypothalamus
```
part of diencephalon
maintains homeostasis
controls body temperature
maintains water balance
controls sleep
controls appetite
controls emotions of fear and pleasure
controls pituitary glad
controls both portions of ANS
influences many major body functions
```
292
type of sensory receptors
chemoreceptors
mechanoreceptors
photoreceptors
thermoreceptors
293
chemoreceptors
chemicas (e.g. taste, smell)
294
mechanoreceptors
movement
295
photoreceptors
light
296
thermoreceptors
temperature
297
general senses
```
touch
pain
position
temperature
pressure
```
298
special senses
```
vision
hearing
taste
equilibrium
smell
```
299
three eyeball tunics
sclera
choroid
retina
300
sclera of eye
outermost layer
white of the eye (due to collagen)
no blood vessels
301
choroid of eye
middle layer
lots of blood vessels
delicate connective tissue
302
retina of eye
innermost layer
receptor layer
contains rods and cones
303
parts of the eye (light and the eye)
cornea
aqueous humor
lens
vitreous body
304
cornea of eye
window of the eye
main refracting strucuture
no blood vessels
anterior continuation with sclera
305
aqueous humor of eye
constantly produced and drained
fluid filling eyeball anterior to lens
gives eye forward curve
306
lens of eye
elastic and firm
biconvex
thickness can be adjusted for far and near vision
307
vitreous body
jelly-like substance
fills posterior space
maintains eye shape
308
retina
pigmented layer next to choroids
rods and cones (photoreceptors)
optic disc (blind sport) - no rods and cones here
connecting neurons - carry impulses to optic nerve
optic nerve fibers
309
rods
```
distributed around periphery of retina
active in dim light
visual acuity is low
cannot perceive color, only shades
vitamin A needed to manufacture a pigment to trigger rods
```
310
cones
```
conentrated near the center of retina
active in bright light
visual acuity is high
perceived red, green, or blue
color blindness caused by malfunctioning cones
```
311
extrinsic eye muscles
originate on orbit and insert on the sclera
voluntary
contribute to convergence
312
name of extrinsic eye muscles
superior & inferior oblique
superior & inferior rectus
lateral & medial rectus
313
instrinsic eye muscles
two circular structures within the eye
involuntary
iris
ciliary muscle
314
iris
colored part of the eye
circular muscles - contract to constrict pupil in bright light
radial muscles - contract in dim light to dilate pupil
315
ciliary muscle of eye
holds lens in place through suspensory ligament
| controls the shape of the lens allowing for far/near vision
316
contraction of ciliary muscle
relaxes supensory ligament and elastic lens thickens (see close)
317
relaxation of ciliary muscle
causes suspensory ligament tension; flattens lens (see far)
318
accommodation for near vision
lens more rounded
light more focused on retina
controlled by ciliary muscle
319
sensory nerves of the eye
```
optic nerve (CN II)
trigeminal nerve (CN V)
```
320
motor nerves of the eye
```
Oculomotor nerve (CN III) - supplies all but two muscles
trochlear nerve (CN IV) - supplies superior oblique muscle
abducens nerve (CN VI) - supplies lateral rectus muscle
```
321
steps in the visual process
```
light refracts
iris adjust pupil
ciliary muscle adjust lens
extrinsic muscles produce convergence
photoreceptors stimulated by light
optic nerve sends impulse to brain
occipital lobe cortex interprets optic nerve information
```
322
sections of the ear
outer ear
middle ear
inner ear
323
outer ear
```
pinna (auricle)
external auditory (meatus) canal
tympanic membrane (eardrum)
```
324
middle ear
three (ossicles) bone - incus, malleus, and stapes
325
inner ear
sensory receptors - semicircular canals, cochlea, and vestibule
326
ceruminous glands
wax-producing glands that secrete cerumen
| found in external auditory canal
327
middle ear three ossicles
incus (anvil)
malleus (mallet)
stapes (Stirrup)
328
middle ear ossicles
amplifying sound waves on tympanic membrnae
handle of malleus attaches to tympanic membrane
base of stapes connect to inner ear
incus between malleus and stapes (attached to both)
329
eustachian tube
connects middle ear with pharynx
| opens and closes to equalize pressure on either side of tympanic membrane
330
inner ear (labyrinth)
most important and complex portion of the ear
331
three areas of inner ear (labyrinth)
vestibule
semicircular canals
cochlea
332
vestibule of inner ear (labyrinth)
equilibrium receptors
| two bony chambers
333
semicircular canals of inner ear (labyrinth)
equilibrium receptors
| tree bony tubes
334
cochlea of inner ear (labyrinth)
hearing receptos
| appearance of a snail shell
335
organ of corti
hearing organ
ciliated receptorss
located within the cochlea
