11. Personality/individual differences Flashcards
define personality
enduring patterns of thought, feeling, motivation and behaviour that are expressed in different circumstances
- Unique to each individual
- Traits - consistent across situations and time
Self-concept: perceptions
Self esteem: evaluation
How do we understand psychological phenomena?
through two types of psychological models: descriptive and process models
what do descriptive models seek to example?
What are we like?
How many elements are there?
Focus on explaining stable elements
Examples: Traits, values
what do process models seek to example?
How do we come to be like we are?
What processes result in behaviour?
Focus on explaining dynamic elements
Examples: Psychodynamics, social cognitive theories
What is Freud’s explanation of personality
Psychoanalytic theory
Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic energy (Libido)
A dynamic personality system - Regular conflicts between the three parts
id
Instinctual nature of humans
ego
rational and objective
superego
internalized moral standards
trait model
Psychometric approach
Personality: a set of traits
Individual differences in each trait
What are the major dimensions (traits) of human personality?
Number
Nature
what is the lexical approach of the trait model?
check dictionary for adjectives that describe people - remove synonyms
ask people to rate themselves on these adjectives
conduct statistical analyses to determine which adjectives go together - form groups of adjectives where people higher on one are typically higher on the other
what is the five factor model?
Five factors that describe people at the most general level:
Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
openness
Intellectual curiosity and independence
Adjectives: imaginative, daring, curious, original
conscientiousness
Organised, persistent, and dependable
Adjectives: hardworking, reliable, persevering
extroversion
Outgoing and sociable
Adjectives: talkative, friendly, fun-loving, sociable
agreeableness
Compassionate and trusting of others
Adjectives: soft-hearted, courteous, trusting,
neuroticism
Emotionally variable and impulsive
Adjectives: nervous, worrying, self-conscious
Dark Triad of personality
Personality characteristics most people find offensive, but not necessarily pathological
includes:
Psychopathy, Narcissism, Machiavellianism
psychopahty
egocentrism, superficial charm, lacking empathy, lacking guilt (Hare, 1996)
narcicissim
love for the self far stronger than love for others; perceptions of self-superiority and entitlement
Machiavellianism
Manipulative, deceitful, usually for personal gain
What is in the HEXACO trait model?
Honesty-Humility (H) Emotionality (E) Extraversion (X): Agreeableness (A): Conscientiousness (C): Openness to Experience (O):
Honesty-Humility (H)
Facets: Sincerity, Fairness, Greed Avoidance, Modesty
Adjectives: Sincere, honest, faithful, loyal, modest/unassuming versus sly, deceitful, greedy, pretentious, hypocritical, boastful
Emotionality (E)
Facets: Fearfulness, Anxiety, Dependence, Sentimentality
Adjectives: Emotional, oversensitive, sentimental, fearful, anxious, vulnerable versus brave, tough, independent, self-assured
Extraversion (X):
Facets: Social Self-Esteem, Social Boldness, Sociability, Liveliness
Adjectives: Outgoing, lively, extraverted, sociable, talkative, cheerful, active versus shy, passive, withdrawn, introverted, quiet
Agreeableness (A):
Facets: Forgivingness, Gentleness, Flexibility, Patience
Adjectives: patient, tolerant, peaceful, mild, agreeable, lenient, gentle versus ill-tempered, quarrelsome, stubborn, choleric
Conscientiousness (C):
Facets: Organization, Diligence, Perfectionism, Prudence
Adjectives: organized, disciplined, diligent, careful, thorough, precise versus sloppy, negligent, reckless, lazy, irresponsible,
Openness to Experience (O):
Facets: Aesthetic Appreciation, Inquisitiveness, Creativity, Unconventionality
Adjectives: intellectual, creative, unconventional, innovative, ironic versus shallow, unimaginative, conventional
Type A vs Type B personality trait model
Competitive, ambitious, impatient, aggressive vs relaxed
what are the two underlying dimensions of Type A personality?
Achievement Striving (hard workers – related to Job Performance) Impatience/irritability (obsession with time – related to poor health outcomes)
What is the core self evaluation model of trait measures
Beliefs individuals have about their capabilities, competence and overall worth
Comprised of 4 traits (Judge et al., 1989)
-Self esteem
-Self efficacy
-Locus of control
-Neuroticism
High Job Performance
How can we use information about people’s personality traits in employment selection?
consider job-personality “fit” alongside other factors in employment decision
Identify the personality traits desirable in the job
e.g., conscientious, extroverted
complete personality surveys during recruitment process
Why is emotional stability relevant?
less negative thinking and fewer negative emotions
less hypervigiliant
What does emotion stability affect?
Higher job and life satisfaction
lower stress levels
Why is extroversion relevant?
better interpersonal skills
greater social dominance
more emotionally expressive
What does extroversion affect?
higher performance
enhanced leadership
higher job and life satisfaction
Why is openness relevant?
increased learning
more creative
more flexible and autonomois
What does openness affect?
training performance
enhanced leadership
More adaptable to change
Why is agreeableness relevant?
beter liked
more compliant and conforming
What does agreeableness affect?
higher performance
lower levels of deviant behaviour
Why is conscientiousness relevant?
greater effort and persistance
more drive and discipline
better organisation and planning
What does conscientiousness affect?
higher performance
enhanced leadership
greater longevity
What is the evidence that supports the use of trait measures for employment selection?
(Barrack & Mount, 1991)
Conscientiousness predicts job performance across contexts
Other factors vary in predicting performance according to job role
what are the issues of using trait measures for employment selection?
Need to consider all dimensions together
Some employers can have narrow ideas about thepersonality requirements for a job
what does extraversion predict in job performance?
Predicts job performance for managers and police officers
Within jobs, extraversion predicts team performance and training performance
what does emotional stability (neuroticism) predict in job performance?
Predicts job performance across the majority of occupations studied
Within jobs, Emotional Stability predicts team performance
what does agreeableness predict in job performance?
Predicts team performance
what does conscientiousness predict in job performance?
Predicts overall job performance for all occupations studied. The strongest predictor of counterproductive workplace behaviours (CWBs).
what does openness to experience predict in job performance?
Only predicts training performance
what are other uses of trait measurements?
Workplace deviance Cutting corners at work Political behavior Social issues E.g. predictors of income, gender pay gap Personal growth and self development What can introverts do to become better leaders? Training Mental health treatment
What is the issue of context dependence?
Personality: enduring patterns of thought, feeling, motivation and behaviour that are expressed in different circumstances
One interpretation is that personality should predict our behaviour in all situations
e.g., an extrovert should always want to socialise
But they don’t
sometimes extroverts want to be alone
people who seem extroverted can feel like introverts
what did Mischel say about context dependence?
personality constructs are poor predictors of individual behaviours
Situations are more important than traits for explaining behaviour
Where situations are stable, behaviour is predictable
Need to observe people in context
“Traits” are situation-specific
when in situation is X, trait Y is likely to be expressed
Conclusion: “general” traits are invalid constructs
What is the interactionism resolution to context dependence?
Traits and situations interact
We need to understand both to understand a person
What is the aggregation resolution to context dependence?
Traits are poor predictors of single behaviours
Better at predicting how people are likely to behave in aggregate
whole trait theory
Personality traits as averages of personality states
what is the issue of the self-other consistency in relation to trait measures?
Who can reliably judge personality?
Are our judgements of ourselves similar to judgements of us by others?
What is ‘personality’?
what were John & Robin’s findings about the self-other consistency in relation to trait measurements?
Consistency is reasonable, but varies across factors
Peer-peer ratings are more consistent than self-peer ratings
Extraversion: highest agreement between people
Agreeableness: lowest agreement between people
