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1.1-1.7 Flashcards

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1
Q

Why are cells the smallest unit of life?

A

They are surrounded by a membrane and although there are smaller things that live in cells they are not the smallest unit of life because they require cells around them to live

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2
Q

Why do we need cells for energy?

A

They are the site of all chemical reactions for life

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3
Q

What are exceptions to cell theory?

A
  • striated muscle cell
  • aseptate fungal hyphae
  • giant alga
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4
Q

Why is striated muscle cell an exception to cell theory?

A

The size is irregular ( can be up to 30cm long) and each cell has multiple nuclei ( between 2 and 180)

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5
Q

Why is aseptate fungal hyphae an exception to cell theory?

A

Instead of having cell- like sections, a hypha is an uninterrupted tube like structure with many nuclei spread along it

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6
Q

Why is giant alga an exception to cell theory?

A

A uni cellular organism which is 10 cm in size

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7
Q

What are the 7 fundamental processes for life in unicellular organisms?

A 
Metabolism 
Response
Homeostatis 
Growth
Reproduction 
Excretion 
Nutrition
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8
Q

What is metabolism?

A

The speed at which reactions take place in an organism

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9
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Maintaining a constant internal environment suitable for all processes for survival

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10
Q

What is excretion?

A

The removal of waste, to avoid poisoning

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11
Q

What is nutrition?

A

Everything needs to take in some form of food in order to release energy necessary for other body processes

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12
Q

How does paramecium carry out the 7 functions of life?

A

Metabolism- cytoplasm
Reproduction- divides by mitosis
Homeostatis- has a contractile vacuole, which manages the water content
Growth- consumes and assimilates biomass then gets larger until it divides
Response- cilia
Excretion- plasma membrane controls what leaves the cell
Nutrition- food vacuoles store organisms that paramecium has consumes

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13
Q

How does an increasing surface area in a cell affect the volume: surface area ratio?

A

As the total surface area increases, the ratio between the surface area: volume decreases

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14
Q

Why is it important for a cell to have a high SA:V ratio?

A

If the ratio is too small, substances will not diffuse into the cell as quickly as they are required to.
If the rate is too small the waste products are unable to leave the cell and will accumulate, produced more rapidly than they can be excreted

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15
Q

What happens as a result of cells being too big?

A

They will reproduce and divide by mitosis , as if it gets too hot, waste products cannot be excreted fast enough and diffusion isn’t occurring fast enough

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16
Q

How do unicellular and multicellular organisms maximise SA:V ratio?

A

Unicellular- cilia( root hair cells, villi)

Multicellular - folding up ( e.g. Alveoli in lungs)

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17
Q

What is leukaemia?

A

Cancer of blood and bone marrow, abnormal white blood cells that do not function properly. Thought to originate in blood stem cells.

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18
Q

How is leukaemia treated?

A

Bone marrow transplants containing stem cells ( haemotopoietic stem cell transplant ), differentiate to form healthy white blood cells.

Chemotherapy and radiotherapy destroy white blood cells

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19
Q

What are side effects of leukaemia treatment?

A
  • infections from donor

- graft- versus- host disease ( rejection- cells implanted attack cells from host body)

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20
Q

What is stargardt disease?

A

Progressive vision loss that can effect children. It is a recessive genetic condition.

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21
Q

What is treatment for statgardt disease?

A

Growing retinal pigment epithelium cells from stem cells and injects under retina, supports photo receptor with results

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22
Q

What are the steps in therapeutic cloning?

A
  1. Nucleus of an ovum removed and replaced with somatic cell of patient
  2. Cell administered electric shock- starts dividing
  3. Blastocyst stage- genetically identical tissues for patients
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23
Q

What are the terms of stem cell research?

A

It is allowed to research stem cells from embryos but they must be destroyed after 14 days to avoid human cloning

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24
Q

What are factors of using embryos for stem cell research?

A
  • obtained from IVF excess embryos
  • destructs embryos- ethical issue
  • growth potential almost unlimited
  • High risk of tumours
  • can differentiate any cell type
  • less chance of genetic damage
  • not genetically identical to patient
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25
Q

What are factors of using umbilical cord blood for stem cell research?

A
  • easy extraction but limited quantities
  • ethically ok- umbilical cord is discarded anyway
  • reduced growth potential
  • lower risk of tumours
  • limited capacity for differentiation- blood cells
  • less chance of genetic damage
  • not genetically identical to patient
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26
Q

What are factors of using adults for stem cell research?

A
  • stem cells difficult to obtain
  • adults can give permission
  • reduced growth potential
  • lower risk of tumours
  • limited capacity for differentiation- depends on source tissue
  • genetic damage can occur as mutations accumulate throughout life
  • fully compatible as genetically identical to patient
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27
Q

What are the benefits of an electron microscope?

A

Have a much higher resolution than light microscopes

Reveal the ultra structure of cells

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28
Q

What is the formula for the magnification of an electron microscope?

A

I
_______
A x M

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29
Q

What is resolution?

A

The shortest distance between 2 points that can be distinguished

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30
Q

Properties of prokaryotes?

A
  • unicellular organisms like bacteria
  • no nucleus, DNA located in nuclear area
  • smaller than eukaryotic cells
  • cell wall
  • contain plasmids
  • DNA in single loops
  • no mitochondria
  • 70 ribosomes
  • free floating DNA in cytoplasm
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31
Q

What are the stages of binary fission in prokaryotic cells?

A
  • DNA replicated and attaches itself to the plasma membrane
  • the cell elongates to separate chromosomes
  • membrane invaginates, pulling itself together in the middle
  • the cell splits into 2 daughter cells
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32
Q

Properties of eukaryotes

A
  • larger sized cell
  • no cell wall, except in plants
  • DNA associated with histoine proteins
  • no plasmids
  • DNA in separate chromosomes
  • DNA in membraned nucleus
  • has mitochondria
  • 80 ribosomes
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33
Q

Similarities between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

Cell membrane, DNA, ribosomes, metabolism, require energy, cytoplasm

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34
Q

What is an animal extra-cellular matrix?

A

A secretion, sometimes if glycoproteins. It sits between cells and can perform many additional functions such a support, adhesion, filtering, as well as a basis for the formation of tissue

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35
Q

What happens when phospholipids are out in water?

A

An emergent property is that phospholipids will self organise to keep their hydrophilic heads wet and hydrophobic tails dry

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36
Q

What is micelle?

A

A formation where hydrophilic heads face the water and tails join to avoid water

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37
Q

What is a liposome?

A

Liposomes have a bilateral formation to contain water inside the cell but still keep it away from the membrane

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38
Q

What is a phospholipid bilayer?

A

This is arranged with the hydrophilic phosphate heads facing outwards and the hydrophobic fatty acid tails ( consisting of hydrocarbon chains) facing into the middle of the bilayers. It is a barrier against all molecules except the smallest, CO2 and O2.

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39
Q

What are integral proteins?

A

They are usually involved in transporting substances across the membrane and usually span from 1 side of the phospholipid bilayer to the other

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40
Q

What are peripheral proteins?

A

They sit on surfaces and slide around the membrane quickly and collide with each other, but will never flip from one side to another. The ones on the inside of the membrane are involved in maintaining cells shape or motility. Might also be enzymes.

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41
Q

What are glycoproteins?

A

Usually involved in cell recognition, which is part of the immune system. Also act as reception a in cell signalling such as with hormones

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42
Q

What is cholesterol?

A

It binds together lipid in the plasma membrane, reducing its fluidity as conferring its structural stability

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43
Q

What is a fluid mosaic model?

A

The structure of a membrane in fluid state, on electron micrographs the proteins form a mosaic pattern

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44
Q

How is the structure of phospholipids strong?

A
  • hydrophobic hydrogen tails attracted to each other
  • hydrophilic phosphate heads attracted to each other
  • heads suited to high water content of tissue fluid and cytoplasm on either side of membrane
  • Tails repel water, creating a barrier between the internal and external water environments of the cell + a barrier to movement of charged molecules
  • charges in phospholipids attract them, making them stable but allowing some movement
  • presence of cholesterol molecules increases stability
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45
Q

What do channel proteins do?

A

Span membranes, movement of large molecules. There are passive and active membrane pumps- allow specific ions through

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46
Q

What do receptor proteins do?

A

Detect hormones arriving at cell to signal changes in function involved in other cell and substance recognition.

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47
Q

What are electron carriers?

A

Chain of peripheral and integral proteins that allow electrons to pass across the membrane. Active pump uses ATP to move specific substances across the membrane

48
Q

How do substances pass through selectively permeable membranes?

A
  • some molecules pass through easily or go through a tunnel ( facilitated diffusion)
  • other molecules need energy in active transport
  • large molecules use own membrane ( endocytosis/ exocytosis)
49
Q

Does endocytosis require energy?

A

Yes- ATP to form vesicles

50
Q

Cellular example of endocytosis?

A

Placenta- proteins from mothers blood absorbed by foetus in endocytosis

51
Q

Does exocytosis require energy?

A

Yes

52
Q

Cellular example of exocytosis?

A

Digestive enzymes released from glands

Neurotransmitters

Removal of excess water

53
Q

Does simple diffusion have a concentration gradient?

A

Yes

54
Q

Cellular example of simple diffusion

A

Lungs- alveoli

55
Q

Does facilitated diffusion use membrane proteins?

A

Yes- channels

56
Q

Does facilitated diffusion have a concentration gradient?

A

High to low

57
Q

Cellular example of facilitated diffusion

A

Water in/ out of cells

Glucose and amino acids in/ out of body cells

58
Q

What is the process of endocytosis?

A

A vesicle is formed- a small region of membrane pulled from the rest and pinched off ( using proteins and ATP). The vesicle consists of a small piece of plasma membrane and contains material from outside of the cell

59
Q

What is a vesicle?

A

A small sac of membrane with fluid inside. Present in eukaryotes. Constructed, moved and deconstructed.

60
Q

Why is endocytosis needed?

A

To carry water and solutes and larger molecules that cannot pass across the plasma membranes

61
Q

What is the purpose of exocytosis?

A

Vesicles are used to release materials from cells by fusing with the plasma membrane. - secretion, excretion

62
Q

How does endocytosis and exocytosis work within the process in a secretory cell?

A
  1. Endocytosis- plasma membrane pulled inwards - fluid enclosed when vesicles picked off
    - vesicles move through cytoplasm carrying contents
  2. Proteins synthesised by ribosomes and let them enter rough endoplasmic reticular ( RER)
  3. .Vesicles bud off from RER and carry proteins to Golgi apparatus
  4. Golgi apparatus modifies the proteins
  5. Vesicles bud off from Golgi apparatus and carries modified proteins to plasma membranes
  6. Exocytosis - vesicles fuse with plasma membrane
    - contents of vesicle expelled
    - membrane flattens again
63
Q

What is simple diffusion?

A
  • net movement from high- low concentration
  • can only happen if phospholipid bilayer is permeable to the particles
  • non polar particles ( oxygen) diffuse easily
  • centre of membrane is hydrophobic do ions don’t easily pass through
  • polar molecules ( partial charges) can diffuse at low rates
64
Q

What is facilitated diffusion?

A
  • ions and particles that cannot diffuse between phospholipids exit/ enter if there are channel through plasma membrane
  • channels consists of proteins- narrow diameter
  • diameter and chemical properties endure only one specific particle enters
  • high - low concentration
65
Q

What is osmosis?

A
  • net movement of water particles, due to concentration of substances dissolved in water ( more intermolecular bonds)
  • bonds restrict movement of H2O - high dilute concentration- low concentration
  • passive
  • all cells
  • some cells have aquaponics - increase permeability to water
66
Q

What is active transport?

A
  • substances absorbed/ expelled against concentration gradient
  • used ATP
  • carried out by globular proteins in membranes
67
Q

What is an axon?

A 
Part of a neutron 
- tubular membrane and cytoplasm 
- narrow as micrometer in diameter 
, metre in length 
-carries nerve impulses
68
Q

What does nerve impulses involve chemically?

A

It involved rapid movement of sodium and potassium ions across the axon membrane

69
Q

How does sodium and potassium move across the axon membrane in nerve impulses?

A

Facilitated diffusion though sodium and potassium channels

70
Q

What happens in the cycle of the sodium- potassium pump?

A
  1. Interior pump open to inside of axon-3 sodium ions enter and attach to binding site
  2. ATP transfers phosphate group to the inside of the pump- changes sharp and closes
  3. Interior of pump opens to outside of axon and 3 sodium ions are released
  4. 2 potassium ions from outside enter and attach to binding site
  5. Binding of potassium causes release of phosphate group causing pump to change shape
  6. Interior of pump opens to inside of axon and 2 potassium ions are released
71
Q

What are the properties of potassium channels?

A
  • 4 protein subunits
  • narrow between subunits- allows K ions in either direction
  • pore 0.3nm wide at narrowest
  • they are voltage gated due to an imbalance of charges across the membrane
  • if an axon has more positive charges outside than inside the potassium channels are closed
72
Q

How do potassium channels work?

A
  • K ions dissolve- bonded to shell of H2O molecules that make them too large to pass through the pore
  • the bonds between the K ion and surrounding H2Os are broken and bonds form temporarily between K ion and series of amino acids in narrowest part of the pore
  • after they have passed through the channel, the K ions again become associated with a shell of H2O molecules
73
Q

What is spontaneous generation?

A

Formation of living organisms from non living matter

74
Q

Who made claims of spontaneous generation and why?

A

Theophratus, Aristotle and Paracelsus due to no understanding of cells, microorganisms and sexual reproduction

75
Q

What was Louis Pasteur’s experiment that proved spontaneous generation wrong?

A
  • he had a nutrient broth of water yeast and sugar
  • if sealed it remained unchanged
  • when a pad of air filtered cotton wool was placed in the broth, in 36hrs there was mould
  • broth in swan neck glasses
  • longer glasses- no mould
  • boiled- no mould
76
Q

Why is there no spontaneous generation of cells?

A

Cells are highly complex structures and there are no natural mechanisms for producing cells from simpler sub units

Cell division has to happen.

Viruses are produced from simpler sub units but they don’t consist of cells and are produced from hosts

77
Q

How did miller and Urey form carbon compounds?

A

They passed steam through a mixture of methane, hydrogen and ammonia ( early earth atmosphere)

Electrical discharges to stimulate lightening

Amino acids and other carbon compounds for life were produced, showing that organic molecules were synthesised outside cells with no oxygen

78
Q

How do carbon compounds naturally form polymers?

A

Origins of the first carbon compound are in deep sea vents ( cracks in the surface, gushing hot water with reduced inorganic compound like iron sulphides).

This represents a source of energy for these carbon compounds = polymers

79
Q

How were membranes naturally formed?

A
  • phospholipids and amphipathetic carbon compounds 1st would have naturally assembled into bilayers
  • bilayers form vesicles resembling plasma membrane
80
Q

How did there come a mechanism for inheritance?

A
  • genes made of DNA, enzymes as catalysts for replication
  • for enzymes to be made, genes are needed
  • solution= RNA used to be genetic material- self replicating and a catalyst
81
Q

How did mitochondria form eukaryotic cells?

A
  1. Mitochondria- once free living prokaryotic organisms developed aerobic respiration.
  2. Larger prokaryotes with anaerobic respiration took them in by endocytosis- small prokaryotes lived in their cytoplasm
  3. They grew and divided as fast as the large ones- became mitochondria inside eukaryotes today
82
Q

What can we describe the relationship between mitochondria ( prokaryotic organisms with aerobic respiration) and large prokaryotes with anaerobic respiration as?

A

Symbiotic relationship, mutualistic relationship

  • as the small one is supplied food by the larger one
  • as the small aerobically respires providing energy for the large cell
83
Q

What does endosymbiosis also explain the origin of?

A

Chloroplasts with small photosynthesising cells being able to divide in a large cell

84
Q

What evidence is there for endosymbiosis?

A
  • mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own gene on a circular DNA molecule, like prokaryotes
  • have own 70s ribosomes of shape and size of prokaryotes
  • transcribe own DNA and use mRNA to synthesise own proteins
  • only produced by division of pre existing mitochondria and chloroplasts
85
Q

What is mitosis?

A

When the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell divides to form 2 genetically identical nuclei

86
Q

What phases does mitosis consist of?

A

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

87
Q

What has to happen before mitosis?

A

Interphase

88
Q

What happens in interphase?

A
  • DNA replication
  • many metabolic reactions occur- DNA replication, protein synthesis only happen in interphase
  • number of mitochondria in cytoplasm increase- growth and division
  • in plant cells and algae chloroplasts increase in the same way
  • also synthesise cellulose and use vesicles to add it to their walls
89
Q

What is the cell cycle?

A

Sequence of events between 1 cell division and the next- interphase and cell division

90
Q

What is the sequence of the cell cycle?

A

Interphase

Mitosis

G1- cellular content apart from chromosomes are duplicated

S- each of the chromosomes are duplicated

G2

91
Q

What are the stages in prophase?

A
  1. Chromosomes condense
  2. Centrioles formation
  3. Nuclear membrane breaks down
92
Q

What are the stages of metaphase?

A
  1. Spindle fibres form at centrioles

2. Chromosomes line up at the equator

93
Q

What are the stages of anaphase?

A
  1. Spindle fibres shorten and pull chromatids apart to opposite poles
94
Q

What are the stages of telophase?

A
  1. Nuclear envelope reforms
    2 spindle disappears
  2. Chromosomes uncool
  3. Cytokinesis
95
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

When cells divide after mitosis if two genetically identical nuclei are present in a cell

96
Q

How does cytokinesis happen in animal cells?

A
  • the plasma membrane is pulled inwards around the equator of the cell to form a cleavage furrow
  • punches cytoplasm in half
97
Q

How does cytokinesis occur in plant cells?

A
  • Golgi apparatus forms vesicles of new cell wall materials

- vesicles collect at equator and coalesce to form membrane

98
Q

What are cyclins?

A

Proteins that control the cell cycle

99
Q

How do cyclins work?

A
  • cyclins bind to enzymes called cyclin dependent kinases
  • become active and attach phosphate groups to other proteins in the cell
  • this triggers activity to carry out tasks specific to a phase in the cell cycle
100
Q

What does each type of cyclin do in the cell cycle?

A

Cyclin D- triggers cell from G0 to G1 and G1 to S phase

Cyclin E- prepares cell for DNA replication in S phase

Cyclin A- activates DNA in nucleus in S phase

Cyclin B- promotes assembly of mitotic spindle and other tasks in the cytoplasm to prepare for mitosis

101
Q

Who discovered cyclins?

A

Tim hunt

102
Q

How were cyclins discovered?

A
  • During research into the control of protein synthesis in sea urchin eggs
  • discovered protein that increased in concentration after fertilisation and then decreased in concentration, whereas other proteins to increase
  • protein being synthesised over a period of 30 minutes and after was being broken down
  • went through repeated increases and decreases in concentration that coincided with phases of cell cycle
103
Q

What are benign tumours?

A

Abnormal groups of cells that adhere to each other and do not invade

104
Q

What are malign tumours?

A

Cells that can come detached and form secondary tumours

105
Q

What are carcinogens?

A

Chemicals and agents causing cancer

106
Q

What are mutations?

A

Random changes to the base sequences of genes

107
Q

What are oncogenes?

A

Genes that become cancer causing after mutating

108
Q

What is metastatis?

A

The movement of cells from a primary tumour to set up secondary tumours in other parts of the body

109
Q

What is the function of the nucleus?

A

Cell management

110
Q

What are the purpose of centrioles?

A

During cell division they replicate and grow spindle fibres

111
Q

What is the purpose of mitochondria?

A

Site of aerobic respiration

112
Q

What is the purpose of chloroplasts?

A

Photosynthesis

113
Q

What is the purpose of ribosomes?

A

Protein synthesis

114
Q

What is the purpose of rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Ribosomes are attached to them, so protein synthesis and discharge of products from cells

115
Q

What is the function of the soft endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Synthesis of substances for cells ( lipids )

116
Q

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

A

Synthesis of bio chemicals

Biology (13 decks)

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