1 - Introduction to Personality Flashcards
Define Differential Psychology
A branch of psychology that deals with behavioural differences between individuals and groups
Define Personality, Traits and States
Personality
- a dynamic organisation of psychophysical systems inside a person that create their characteristic patterns of behaviour, thoughts and feelings
^ As defined by Gordon Allport
Personality is a psychological construct, a mental concept that influences behaviour via the mind behind the body
Traits
- aspects of these characteristics (that make up the personality) that are consistent and long lasting
States
- aspects of the characteristics making up the personality that are temporary, and depend on a person’s situation and motives at a particular time
e. g.
- climate vs weather
Karl Jung’s approach to personality
(Influenced by Adler’s work on social context and Freud’s psychoanalysis, as well as clinical and personal observations)
Based on psychoanalytical principles, stating at least 2 different personality types:
- Extraversion and Introversion
> but listed 6 more personality types, 4 pairs of opposites
Extroversion vs Introversion
Sensing vs Intuition
Thinking vs Feeling
Judging vs Perceiving
Jung’s model (4 pairs)
Extroversion vs Introversion
- Extroversion
> outgoing nature, easily adapts to situations, quickly forms attachments
- Introversion
> hesitant and reflective, shy’s away and airs on the defensive
Sensing vs Intuition
- Sensing
> paying attention to physical reality (senses), concerned with the tangible and present
- Intuition
> paying attention to impressions and patterns of information, interested in the possible (past or future)
Thinking vs Feeling
- Thinking
> interpretation using reason and logic (objective)
- Feeling
> evaluation on the basis of individual points of view (subjective)
Judging vs Perceiving - Judging > preferring order, being in control and making decisions - Perceiving > preferring to take in information
Compare Extroversion and Introversion
Extroversion
- consciousness focussing on external objects
Introversion
- consciousness focussing on the self
Application of Jung’s Theory
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
- based on Jungian personality types and is often used in occupational settings
- it’s unethical to use these results to screen out participants, rather better to use it to profile individuals to find their best suited role
Eysenck’s approach to personality
- Underpinned by biological theory
- based on Second Order Personality Traits
- Within the Ascending Reticular Activating System are two systems:
> Reticulo-Cortical system, managing arousal due to external stimuli
> Reticulo-limbic system, managing arousal due to emotional stimuli
What are the Reticulo-Cortical and Reticulo-Limbic systems and what do they indicate
Systems within the Ascending Reticular Activating System
- Reticulo-cortical system defines intro/extroversion, where high arousal to incoming stimuli is introverted and low arousal to incoming stimuli is extroverted (it takes less stimulation to put introverts into optimum interest and performance, but also less to put them into stress)
- Reticulo-limbic system defines emotional stability, where low arousal to emotional stimuli shows emotional stability
Eysenck’s personality model
Was developed using factor analysis
Eysenck’s model would place your personality on a 3D graph based on:
- Introversion Extroversion
- Emotionally Stable Emotionally Unstable (neuroticism)
- High Impulse Control Low Impulse Control (psychoticism)
Gray’s Approach to personality
Gray’s model focuses on how we respond to punishment and reward, thus providing a framework for conditioning, and clarifies ways in which individuals may differ in learning. Very tightly tied to neurophysiology.
Gray’s theory is based on the interaction between BAS and BIS (reinforcement sensitivity theory)
Describe the BIS BAS system and it’s use in bipolar analysis
Behavioural Approach System is based on reward seeking. The more active the BAS (higher score), shows higher levels of happiness and reward in relation to goal completion.
High BAS score indicates higher levels of impulsivity
Behavioural Inhibition System is based on avoiding punishment. Higher BIS activity shows increased sensitivity to punishment and thus avoidance of environments causing fear, anxiety etc.
High BIS score indicated higher levels of anxiety
The BIS/BAS system is used to analyse psychological disorders such as bipolar:
A high BIS score, showing high anxiety, indicates imminence to a depressive phase
A high BAS score, showing high impulsivity, indicates imminence to a manic episode
What does BIS stand for, and what does a high score indicate?
Behavioural Inhibition System
High BIS score indicated higher levels of anxiety
What does BAS stand for and what does a high score indicate?
Behavioural Approach System
High BAS score indicates higher levels of impulsivity
Costa and McCrae’s approach to personality
The most widely accepted model in psychology
- a trait model, rooted in the Lexical approach to personality and based on a data-driven approach
- generating their model based on super factor analysis
- proposed that all personality traits can be defined within 5 factors. Leading to the 5 Factor Model based on the Big 5 personality traits: OCEAN - Openness (to experience) - Conscientiousness - Extraversion - Agreeableness - Neuroticism
What do scores on Costa and McCrae’s 5 personality traits indicate?
Openness to experience
- High scores show curiosity and inventiveness
- Low scores show practicality and cautiousness
Conscientiousness
- HS = efficiency and organisation
- LS = impulsivity and carelessness
Extroversion
- HS = outgoing and energetic
- LS = reserved and solitary
Agreeableness
- HS = friendly and compassionate
- LS = critical and unkind
Neuroticism
- HS = anxious and sensitive
- LS = secure and calm
Psychoanalytic Approach to personality
.. theory based?
Lexical approach to personality
The description of personality will exist in the language we use. Thus we can pull out traits for overarching factors
(from the dictionary)
Factor analytic approach to personality
Purely a statistical approach, examining how different traits cluster together
Biological approach to personality
Neurophysiologically defined model developed with empirical testing
How to evaluate models of personality
- Explanation
- Empirical Validity
- Testable Concepts
- Comprehensiveness
- Parsimony
- Heuristic Value
- Applied Value
Models of personality need to be evaluated critically, so that they may be compared properly, by evaluating:
Explanation:
- does the theory provide a convincing explanation of typical commonly observed instances of that behaviour?
- does it explain how and why individual differences in behaviours occur?
Empirical Validity:
- can the theory be used to predict future events or behaviour in specific situations?
Testable concepts:
- can the concepts within the theory be operationalised?
(can the concept be defined precisely enough to enable it to be reliably measured)
Comprehensiveness:
- does the theory explain both normal and abnormal behaviour?
- it’s unlikely that a theory will be able to explain all human behaviour as it is so varied. Normally consensuses emerge within research based on the commonality of a behaviour
Parsimony:
- the theory should be economical in the number of explanatory concepts used. All should be necessary to explain the phenomena under study
Heuristic Value:
- does the theory stimulate interest and research in the area?
- doesn’t necessarily have to be a good theory
Applied Value:
- does the theory lead to better control of unwanted behaviours?
- does it provide a qualitative leap in the particular area?
Define internal reliability (internal consistency)
- refers to whether all the aspects of the psychometric test are generally working together to measure the same thing
- commonly these aspects are a number of questions in the scale for which answers should correlate, suggesting they go together to form a single construct
- this is normally done using Cronbach’s Alpha. If done on SPSS, tick item/scale/scale if deleted, and it will show you which questions should be deleted. Do this one at a time from lowest correlation first
- when this is done you can add the scores up to get an overall score for what you are measuring
Define Test-Retest Reliability (reliability over time)
- this is a measure of consistency of results
- have the same group of people take the same questionnaire a week/month later, and test the correlation of the two sets of results
- the criteria for correlation is r<0.7
Define Validity
- is the test measuring what it is supposed to be measuring? there is no absolute way to determine this, but it is shows by measuring more specific kinds of validity > convergent > concurrent > descriminant > face > content > predictive
Define Convergent Validity
- a psychometric test’s convergent validity is shown by the extent to which it shows associations between measures (questions) of the same proposed construct
