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AS BIOLOGY > 1 - Biological Compounds > Flashcards

1 - Biological Compounds Flashcards

1
Q

What is the name of the monomer of carbohydrates?

A

Monosaccharide (glucose, fructose, galactose)

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2
Q

What is the name of the dimer of carbohydrates?

A

Disaccharide (maltose, sucrose, lactose)

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3
Q

What is the name of the polymer of carbohydrates?

A

Polysaccharide (glycogen, starch, cellulose, chitin)

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4
Q

How many subunits does a monomer have?

A

1 single subunit

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5
Q

How many subunits does dimer have?

A

2 subunits

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6
Q

How many subunits does a polymer have?

A

Multiple subunits

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7
Q

What carbohydrates are soluble?

A
  • Monosaccharide (glucose, fructose, galactose)

* Disaccharide (maltose, sucrose, lactose)

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8
Q

What carbohydrates are insoluble?

A

Polysaccharide (glycogen, starch, cellulose, chitin)

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9
Q

What are carbohydrates made of?

A

Only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

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10
Q

What are functions of carbohydrates?

A
  • Instant energy sources (monomer & dimer)
  • Transportable or storable forms of energy (polymer)
  • Structural materials (polymer)
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11
Q

What is the chemical formula of triose?

A

C3H6O3

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12
Q

What is the chemical formula of pentose?

A

C5,H10,O5

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13
Q

What is the chemical formula of hexose?

A

C6,H12,O6

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14
Q

What is an example of a triose?

A

Glyceralderhyde

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15
Q

What is an example of a pentose?

A

Deoxyribose, ribose

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16
Q

What is an example of a hexose?

A
  • Glucose (alpha/beta)
  • Fructose
  • Galactose
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17
Q

How many carbons does triose have?

A

3

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18
Q

How many carbons does pentose have?

A

5

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19
Q

How many carbons does hexose have?

A

6

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20
Q

What are some properties of glucose?

A
  • It’s soluble
  • It’s sweet-tasting
  • It’s a polar molecule
  • It is transported in solution in blood plasma
  • It is the major respiratory substrate and is readily broken down in respiration and the energy released is used to make ATP
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21
Q

What happens in condensation reactions?

A
  • Molecules join together to form larger molecules
  • Water (H2O) is released in the reaction
  • A new covalent bond is formed
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22
Q

What does the condensation reaction of alpha glucose + alpha glucose form?

A

Maltose (with a glycosidic bond)

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23
Q

What are inorganic ions also called?

A

Electrolytes / minerals

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24
Q

What are organic ions important for?

A

Many cellular processes including:
• Muscle contraction
• Nervous coordination
• Maintaining water potential in cells and blood

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25
Q

What are the two groups of organic ions?

A
  • Macronutrients - needed in small concentrations

* Micronutrients - needed in minute concentrations

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26
Q

What are organic molecules?

A

Molecules that have a high proportion of carbon atoms

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27
Q

What are inorganic molecules?

A

A molecule or ion that has no more than one carbon atom

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28
Q

What are monosaccharides used for?

A
  • A source of energy in respiration
  • Building blocks for larger molecules
  • Intermediates in reactions
  • Constituents of nucleotides
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29
Q

What 2 monosaccharides react to form maltose?

A

Alpha glucose + alpha glucose

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30
Q

What 2 monosaccharides react to form sucrose?

A

Alpha glucose + fructose

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31
Q

What 2 monosaccharides react to form lactose?

A

Glucose + galactose

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32
Q

What is the biological role of maltose?

A

It’s in germinating seeds

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33
Q

What is the biological role of sucrose?

A

Transporting in phloem of flowering plants

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34
Q

What is the biological role of lactose?

A

It’s in mammalian milk

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35
Q

What sugars are reducing sugars?

A

All monosaccharides and some disaccharides e.g maltose

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36
Q

What sugars are non-reducing sugars?

A

Some disaccharides such as sucrose

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37
Q

If Benedict’s reagent is added to a solution containing a reducing sugar, what colour will it turn?

A

It will turn from blue to green, yellow, orange and finally a brick red precipitate will form

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38
Q

Why does a solution with a reducing sugar turn from blue to brick red?

A

Because the sugars donate an electron to reduce copper (II) ions in copper sulphate to red copper (I) oxide
Cu2+ + e- –> Cu+

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39
Q

How could you test whether sucrose (non-reducing sugar) is in a solution?

A
  • Add the enzyme sucrase
  • Sucrase hydrolyses sucrose into glucose and fructose
  • The Benedict’s test will then give a positive result (as glucose + fructose are monosaccharides)
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40
Q

What do proteins contain that carbohydrates and lipids do not?

A

Nitrogen (also sometimes sulphur and phosphorus)

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41
Q

What is the name of the monomer of proteins?

A

Amino acids

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42
Q

What is the name of the dimer of proteins?

A

Dipeptide

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43
Q

What is the name of the polymer of proteins?

A

Polypeptide

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44
Q

What groups make up the structure of an amino acid?

A

~ An amino group -NH2
~ A variable group
~ A carboxyl group -COOH

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45
Q

What is the name of the chemical bond formed by a condensation reaction between 2 amino acids?

A

Peptide bond

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46
Q

What does 2 amino acids reacting in a condensation reaction form?

A

A Dipeptide with a peptide bond

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47
Q

What are the 4 structures proteins can form?

A

~ Primary (non-functional)
~ Secondary (structural protein - keratin)
~ Tertiary (metabolic protein)
~ Quaternary (structural - collagen, metabolic - haemoglobin)

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48
Q

What is the primary structure of proteins?

A

~ The order of the amino acids in a polypeptide chain
~ Polypeptides have up to 20 different types of amino acid
~ The primary structure is determined by the base sequence on 1 strand of the DNA molecule

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49
Q

What happens in hydrolysis reactions?

A
  • Larger molecules break into smaller molecules
  • Water (H2O) is required for the reaction (often with an enzyme/acid)
  • The covalent bond is broken
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50
Q

What are the names of the 2 forms of starch?

A

~ Amylose

~ Amylopectin

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51
Q

What monomers make up the polymer amylose?

A

Alpha glucose, with 1-4 glycosidic bonds

52
Q

What monomers make up the polymer amylopectin?

A

Alpha glucose, with 1-4 glycosidic bonds (coils) and 1-6 glycosidic bonds (branches)

53
Q

What monomers make up the polymer glucose?

A

Alpha glucose, with 1-4 glycosidic bonds (coils) and 1-6 glycosidic bonds (branches)

54
Q

What monomers make up the polymer cellulose?

A

Beta glucose, with 1-4 glycosidic bonds

55
Q

What is glycogen?

A

The storage of glucose in animals, in the liver and skeletal muscle

56
Q

What is the structure and function of amylose, amylopectin and glycogen?

A

~ They’re compact - Glucose molecules can be readily broken off when required for respiration
~ They’re insoluble - Do not reduce the water potential of the cell and effect the movement of water into a cell

57
Q

What is the structure of cellulose and chitin?

A

~ Every adjacent glucose molecule is rotated 180* to form long, straight chains which crosslink with hydrogen bonds to form microfibrils

58
Q

What is the function of cellulose?

A

~ Very strong and supports cell wall

~ Prevents cell wall from bursting when a plant cell becomes turgid

59
Q

What are properties of chitin?

A

~ Strong
~ Waterproof
~ Light

60
Q

Where is chitin found?

A

~ Makes up part of the exoskeleton in insects

~ Makes up the cell wall of fungi

61
Q

What is the secondary structure of proteins?

A

Hydrogen bonds form between amino acids, folding the polypeptide chain into an alpha helix or a beta plated sheet

62
Q

What is the tertiary structure of proteins?

A
  • Polypeptide folds more to form a 3D globular protein
  • Depending on the primary structure there will be varying numbers of hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulphide bonds and hydrophobic interactions
63
Q

Where do hydrogen bonds form in the tertiary structure of proteins?

A

Between H+ and O-

64
Q

Where do ionic bonds form in the tertiary structure of proteins?

A

Between charged R groups on the amino acids (hydrophilic groups) R+ and R-

65
Q

Where do disulphide bonds form in the tertiary structure of proteins?

A

Between pairs of cysteine amino acids in the polypeptide chain

66
Q

Where do hydrophobic interactions form in the tertiary structure of proteins?

A

Hydrophobic R groups ‘hide’ in the centre of the 3D globular protein (as they don’t like water)

67
Q

The water molecule is a dipole, what does this mean?

A

It has a positively charged end (hydrogen) and a negatively charged end (oxygen), but no overall charge

68
Q

What bonds can form between the H+ and O- on a water molecule?

A

Hydrogen bonds

69
Q

Water is a solvent, what does this mean?

A

~ It attracts charged particles, such as ions and other polar molecules
~ These then dissolve in water, so chemical reactions take place in solution

70
Q

Water is a metabolite, what does this mean?

A

Water is used in many biochemical reactions e.g with carbon dioxide to produce glucose in photosynthesis

71
Q

Water has a high specific heat capacity, what does this mean?

A

A large amount of heat energy is needed to raise its temperature

72
Q

Why does water have a high specific heat capacity?

A

Because the hydrogen bonds between water molecules restrict their movement, resisting an increase in kinetic energy and therefore resisting an increase in temperature

73
Q

How does water’s high specific heat capacity affect organisms?

A

~ It stops fluctuations of water temperature ~ So keeps aquatic habitats stable
~ Ensures they don’t have to adapt to extremes of temperature

74
Q

Water has a high latent heat of vapourisation, what does this mean?

A

A large amount of heat energy is needed to change it from a liquid to a gas

75
Q

Water is cohesive, what does this mean?

A

Water molecules attract each other forming hydrogen bonds, and these molecules stick together in a lattice

76
Q

How does water’s high latent heat of vaporisation affect organisms?

A

~ It helps animals cool

~ Lots of heat energy from the body is needed to evaporate sweat, which cools the animal more easily and faster

77
Q

Why does water have a high latent heat of vaporisation?

A

Because whilst changing state it takes in or lets out heat energy without changing temperature

78
Q

How does the cohesion of water affect plants?

A

The hydrogen bonding makes the column of water strong in the xylem and helps it move up the stem

79
Q

How does water have a high surface tension?

A

~ Cohesion between water molecules at the surface produces surface tension
~ This allows insects such as pond skaters to move across the water

80
Q

Why is ice less dense than water?

A

~ As water cools, hydrogen bonds form between the water molecules
~ The water molecules move further apart to allow more hydrogen bonds to fit
~ As a result, the water expands as it freezes, so the ice is less dense than the water and floats

81
Q

Ice is less dense than water, how does this affect organisms?

A

~ The ice floats on the surface and insulates the water underneath
~ Therefore the organisms are kept warmer and aren’t faced with extreme cold temperatures

82
Q

How is water transparent?

A

It doesn’t absorb in the wavelength range of visible light, roughly 400-700nm

83
Q

Water is transparent, how does this affect organisms?

A

Sunlight can reach the plants, allowing them to photosynthesise

84
Q

What do multiple maltose molecules join to form? (Many alpha glucose)

A

Starch / glycogen

85
Q

What do many beta glucose molecules join to form?

A

Cellulose

86
Q

How do you carry out the test for starch?

A

~ Add iodine
~ Shake it
~ Colour goes from yellow to blue/black

87
Q

How do you carry out the test for reducing sugar?

A

~ Add Benedict’s solution
~ Boil it for 5 minutes
~ Shake it
~ Colour changes from blue to brick red

88
Q

How do you carry out the test for non reducing sugar?

A 
~ Add acid (hydrolyses sucrose to glucose + fructose)
~ Boil it for 2 minutes 
~ Neutralise with alkali
~ Add Benedict's solution
~ Boil for 5 minutes 
~ Shake it
~ Colour changes from blue to brick red
89
Q

How do you carry out the test for protein? (Biuret test)

A

~ Add Biuret reagent
~ Shake it
~ Colour changes from blue to purple

90
Q

How do you carry out the test for lipids? (Emulsion test)

A 
~ Add ethanol (dissolve the lipid)
~ Shake it
~ Add water
~ Shake it
~ Goes from colourless to cloudy
91
Q

What is the monomer of nucleic acids?

A

Nucleotides

92
Q

What is the polymer of nucleic acid?

A

Polynucleotides (DNA, RNA, ATP)

93
Q

Why are lipids not polymers?

A

Because they’re not made up of monomers

94
Q

What does chitin have added to it?

A

Acetyl amide (HNCOCH3) which replaces the -OH and forms a mucopolysaccharide

95
Q

What is a triglyceride made up of?

A

Glycerol + 3 fatty acids

96
Q

What are functions of triglycerides?

A

~ Provide insulation
~ Protects vital organs
~ Good energy store (twice as much energy as carbohydrates)
~ Helps buoyancy (ability to float in water)

97
Q

What are lipids soluble in?

A

Organic solvents such as alcohol

98
Q

Why are lipids insoluble in water?

A

Because lipids are non-polar, but water is a polar molecule, and also water contains no carbon atoms

99
Q

What are properties of saturated fats?

A

~ Only single carbon bonds in hydrocarbon chain
~ Usually animal fats
~ Usually solid at room temperature

100
Q

What types of fats are most healthy?

A

Polyunsaturated

101
Q

What is the name of a fat with one double bond?

A

Monounsaturated fat

102
Q

What are properties of unsaturated fats?

A

~ Have double bonds in hydrocarbon chain (not fully saturated with hydrogen)
~ Usually plant fats
~ Liquid at room temperature

103
Q

What do phospholipids contain?

A

Glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate group

104
Q

What structure do phospholipids form?

A

Phospholipid bilayer

105
Q

What does LDL / HDL stand for?

A

Low density lipoprotein / high density lipoprotein

106
Q

What produces LDL?

A

Saturated fats

107
Q

What produces HDL?

A

Unsaturated fats

108
Q

What do HDLs do?

A

Carry harmful fats away from artery walls to the liver

109
Q

What are peptide bonds also known as?

A

Covalent bonds

110
Q

What is the name of the bond that joins carbohydrate monomers?

A

Glycosidic bond

111
Q

What is the name of the bond that joins lipid monomers?

A

Ester bonds

112
Q

What is the name of the bond that joins protein monomers?

A

Peptide bonds

113
Q

What are the main causes of heart disease?

A

~ Diet high in saturated fats
~ Smoking
~ Lack of exercise
~ Aging

114
Q

What are lipoproteins?

A

Lipids and proteins combined

115
Q

Why do saturated fats cause heart disease?

A

~ Because LDLs build up and atheroma (fatty material) forms in the coronary arteries
~ This restricts blood flow and oxygen delivery to the heart

116
Q

What happens if coronary arteries become completely blocked up with plaque/atheroma?

A

A heart attack

117
Q

What are some examples of proteins that form a quaternary structure?

A

~ Collagen + keratin (fibrous)

~ Haemoglobin + enzymes and hormones e.g Insulin (globular)

118
Q

What is the structure of collagen - a fibrous protein?

A

~ Has 3 polypeptide chains held by hydrogen bonds
~ Form long fibres
~ Have regular, repetitive sequences of amino acids
~ Forms a triple helix
~ Bundles of triple helices crosslink with covalent bonds

119
Q

Where is collagen found?

A

In connective tissue. It’s strong and strengthens skin

120
Q

What is the structure of haemoglobin - a metabolic globular protein?

A

~ Has 4 polypeptide chains (2 alpha + 2 beta)
~ Each polypeptide chain has a haem (fe2+) prosthetic group added
~ Folded into a globular shape with hydrophobic R groups turned inwards

121
Q

Where is haemoglobin found?

A

In red blood cells - it carries oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood

122
Q

What type of quaternary structure proteins are soluble in water?

A

Globular proteins

123
Q

What type of quaternary structure proteins are insoluble in water?

A

Fibrous proteins

124
Q

What are 2 forms of nucleic acid?

A

DNA and RNA

125
Q

What are functions of phospholipids?

A
  • Electrical insulation

* In biological membranes

126
Q

What are functions of waxes?

A

Waterproofing (waxes reduce water loss, such as in the insect exoskeleton and in the cuticle of plants)

AS BIOLOGY (13 decks)

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