1 - Approaches To Explaining Behaviour Flashcards
List all 6 approaches
Behaviourism The Social Learning Theory The Cognitive Approach The Biological Approach The Psychodynamic Approach The Humanistic Approach
Define Psychology
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions which effect behaviours
Who was Wundt?
1879 - He opened the first lab dedicated to psychology and was the first who coined psychology as a discipline.
He invented introspection
Define and explain Introspection
The first method of studying psychology, created by Wundt;
a studying method that evaluates one’s mental and emotional state.
He used it as a controlled method of collecting thoughts and feelings and it was the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind.
It involves breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
Explain how introspection was used regarding methodology by Wundt
People were given stimuli in controlled conditions and asked to explain their mental processes.
The process was standardised to make it fair and replicable.
What did Hunter et al do?
Studied happiness in teenagers using introspection in 2003.
They got their participants to recall their thoughts and feelings whenever a buzzer/bell sounded, surprising them.
They described their inner mental process (emotions) and reported their intensity and quality.
What was the conclusion of Hunter’s study?
Teenagers were generally unhappy, however they were positive and upbeat when focused on a task
Who were the first behaviourists?
Robert Watson & B.F. Skinner
What did Watson and Skinner change about psychology as a science?
They bought rigour and natural science methods into psychology (the experimental method)
What did behaviourists reject introspection as?
Too vague
What is the underlying assumption of behaviourists?
All behaviour is learnt
What are the 2 types of conditioning?
Classical
Operant
What is classical conditioning and who was the psychologist who discovered it?
Pavlov (1982)
He believed we form associations with unlearned (unconditioned) stimuli in order to form new responses/behaviours (conditioned response)
What is operant conditioning and who was the psychologist who discovered it?
Skinner (1948)
Roughly changing behaviour by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response
What are/were behaviourists beliefs and views on behaviour?
Behaviour should be objective and measurable
They believed in the use of controlled labs
What is an unconditioned stimulus and what aspect of Pavlov’s experiment represented it?
Leads to an unconditioned response (the food)
It causes an automatic response
What is an conditioned stimulus and what aspect of Pavlov’s experiment represented it?
The bell (ONLY after conditioning) Something that has been conditioned and now it can be associated with an unconditioned response
What is an neutral stimulus and what aspect of Pavlov’s experiment represented it?
The bell (before conditioning) At the beginning it produced no specific response until after conditioning - it becomes a conditioned response
What is an unconditioned response and what aspect of Pavlov’s experiment represented it?
An unlearned, natural response - a reaction to an unconditioned response
Dog salivating to food
What is an conditioned response and what aspect of Pavlov’s experiment represented it?
An automatic response established by training and association to an ordinary neutral stimulus
Dog salivating to the bell
Define Positive Reinforcement
Making a behaviour/reaction reoccur by reinforcing stimulus that makes it more likely that behaviour will happen again
Define Negative Reinforcement
When a behaviour is strengthened by stopping or avoiding a negative stimulus/outcome
Define Punishment
Any change in the surroundings that reduces the likelihood of a certain behaviour happening again - the opposite of reinforcement
Evaluate the behaviourist approach
- ethics - animals
- environmental determinism - the approach sees everything as pre-determined, leaving no space for free will - socially sensitive research
- mechanist approach - behaviour is passive and “machine like”. SLT and cognitive approach emphasise mental events during processing. Maybe the learning theory is more applicable to animals rather than humans.
+ application in schools to help kids learn better. Also phobias.
+ scientific credibility - it gave psychology the development of becoming a scientific discipline. It did this by bringing in the language and methods of natural sciences into psychology by focusing on the measurement of observable behaviour using highly controlled lab settings.
Define Social Learning Theory
A branch of behaviourism (believe all behaviour is learnt)
However, they believe it is a social process (learning from other people)
We learn through observation and imitation of other people - they are called “role models”
We identify with them as a result of shared characteristics
Explain what happened in Bandura’s experiment and the findings
1973
Bobo doll experiment
Aim was to investigate SLT
Children watched someone beat up a bobo doll and afters they were either praised, punished or no reaction.
Those who saw him praised were most agressive, then no consequence then no punishment
Define reciprocal reinforcement
Where a person’s behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment.
Define Vicarious Reinforcement
Indirect Reinforcement - receiving reinforcement through observing someone else receiving reinforcement
What is the purpose of Bandura’s mediational processes?
They allow us to develop behaviours through observation
What are the 4 mediational processes and what are the 2 sections they are separated into?
Learning:
Attention - the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
Retention - how well the behaviour is remembered
Producing:
Motor reproduction - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
Motivation - the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
Evaluate the social learning theory
- underestimated biological factors - boy, girl; hormones etc.
- over-reliance on results from lab studies - kids may comply to demand characteristics.
+ explains cultural variations - how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies.
+ less determinist than behaviourist - Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism - we also influence our environment. Shows more free will
What is the underlying assumption in the cognitive approach?
All behaviour comes from inner mental processes, which can be studied scientifically
Explain the Cognitive Approach
It suggests, in order to understand behaviour, we must study internal mental processes - private processes of the mind eg: perception, attention and memory
What is a Schema?
Give an example
A cognitive framework that helps us to organise and interpret information in the brain.
Eg: Christmas
Give 2 reasons why schemas are useful
They are a short cut when interpreting large amounts of information.
They also help us to fill in gaps when we do not have complete information.
What are the names of the 2 models in the Cognitive Approach and what is their purpose?
Computer
Theoretical
Used to try and explain human mental processes
Explain the Theoretical Model
Information is a sequence of stages.
Models are simplified.
They take evidence from research and use diagrams to show how processes work.
Explain the Computer Model
The mind is compared to a computer - they have similarities in ways they process info.
The brain has a CPU - the concept of coding and having storage.
It relates to Artificial Intelligence.
Define Cognitive Neuroscience
Study of the brain and how cognitive processes effect the brain.
They map the brain - relate to emotions etc.
List the 3 Scanning techniques used in the cognitive approach.
fMRI
EEG
PET
Explain fMRI
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Measures brain activity - it scans blood flow and levels of oxygen in the blood.
It’s safe, noninvasive and effective
Explain an EEG
Electroencephalogram.
Studies electrical problems in the brain.
Wires are placed on the scalp and it sends signals to a computer.
Explain a PET scan
Positron Emission Tomography.
An imaging test that finds diseases in the body.
They insert radioactive traces and they are absorbed by the organs and tissues.
Evaluate the cognitive approach
- machine reductionism - It tries to explain human motives in a computational way. Doesn’t consider wider factors (emotions and memories) Reduces validity through lack of consideration.
+ application to real world - influenced the creation of A.I. through the use of computer models. Also lead to successful cognitive therapies such as CBT.
+ scientific and objective methods. Highly controlled and rigorous methods of study. Lab studies create reliable, objective data. - less determinist than other approaches - soft determinism. More of an interactionist approach. Recognises our cognitive system can only operate within the limits that we know, but we still have free will.
What do biological psychologists believe about behaviour?
It is innate (natural/born-with)
So we are born with our behaviour and it varies due to genetics
What is a concordance rate?
How often 2 individuals who are closely related have the same disorder
What is a genotype?
The characteristics in your genes (your genetic makeup)
What is a phenotype?
The displayed characteristics of combined influence of genes and the environment
How many individual pairs of chromosomes do we have?
46 - 23 pairs
Where do we get our genes from?
Our parents
What percentage of genes come from each parent?
50%
If you’re an identical twin, what percentage of genes would you share?
100%
What are the 2 types of twins?
Identical (Monozygotic, MZ) share 100% of genes
Fraternal (Dizygotic, DZ) share 50% of genes
What did Gottesman do?
Carried out a study on concordance rates for schizophrenia
1991
What is a neurotransmitter?
A chemical messenger. It relays images between cells. They cross synapses to pass on information to the next cell.
Explain Natural Selection
When animals who have more advantageous characteristics compared to other animals of the same species are more likely to survive and breed, passing down their genes to their offspring, which means that eventually the whole population will have this characteristic and the species will have evolved.
Why do we form close bonds with our parents right from birth?
They feed and care for us
They provide us with shelter
We have shared genetics and memories
Why have we evolved memory?
To remember danger/threats
Why are men evolved to be naturally stronger and bigger built than women?
Genetics
Women give birth while men provide for the family
Define Biological Structure
The arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing
What are the 3 structural mechanisms in the human body which biological psychologists believe dictate our behaviour?
Brain structure: certain brain regions have been involved in many psychological disorders eg: depression
Nervous system: primary internal communication system. It collects, processes and responds to the environment.
Endocrine system: a network of glands which work together to regulate the bodies’ functions
List all 7 glands of the body
Thyroid gland Pituitary gland Hypothalamus Adrenal glands Pancreas Ovaries Testes
Evaluate the biological approach
+ application - practical, drugs created for disorders.
+ validity - concordance rates for schizophrenia is 50% in MZ twins which shows abnormality cannot be entirely genetic; if only explained by biology, then it would be 100%.
+ internal validity - it uses scientific methods; based on reliable data.
- cause and effect - are the symptoms causing the disorder or the disorder causing the symptoms? Drugs help reduce symptoms of mental disorders, but a relation doesn’t mean a cause.
- ethics - if people inherit all their genes and behaviour, how can they be responsible for their actions? Affects the legal system - takes away blame.
- validity - nurture vs nature. The twins’ characteristics could be independent but the same due to being exposed to the same environmental factors.
What were the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
It focuses on the dynamics of human behaviour whereby most of them are unconscious and direct and guide our behaviour.
It puts emphasis on different stares of mind - consciousness and “structures of personality.”
It suggests that childhood experiences can play and important role in behaviour, particularly abnormal behaviour
Give a background to Sigmund Freud
Grew up in Vienna, where he practiced psychology. He became on the most influential psychologists in the world.
He founded psychoanalysis.
Explain the 3 structures of personality, where they lie in terms of consciousness and when they are developed
ID - birth, unconscious: the pleasure principle, the desire to have everything you want straight away with little regard for anyone else. You and your happiness are all that matters.
EGO - 3 yrs old, conscious and preconscious: the reality principle, the idea that we make judgments on what to do in a situation based on judgement on necessity, right and wrong, and the reality of the situation.
SUPEREGO - 5 yrs old, unconscious, preconscious and conscious:
the morality principle, the individual’s sense of right and wrong. It has strong mental judgement and wants to do the right thing all the time.
What are defence mechanisms?
(If someone is forced with a situation they cannot deal with, they use these)
They distort reality so that the individual’s anxiety is reduced
What are the 3 key defence mechanisms?
Repression: the unconscious blocking of negative/unacceptable thoughts. These thoughts can still affect the individual despite being in the unconscious.
Denial: refusal to accept reality, in order to avoid dealing with difficult feelings associate with the situation.
Displacement: redirection of thoughts and feelings onto something/someone else. Taking problems out on others they shouldn’t be.
What is the preconscious?
Thoughts which sit below the surface and come out through “slips of the tongue”
List the 5 psychosexual stages, the age they occur, details and unresolved conflicts
Oral stage, 0-1 yrs: focus of pleasure is the mouth; mothers breast is the object of desire. U.C: oral fixation: smoking, nail biting, sarcasm and being critical.
Anal stage, 1-3 yrs: F.O.P is the anus. Learning to control the bowel movements and pleasure comes from withholding and expelling faeces. U.C: anal retentive: perfectionist/obsessive. Anal expulsive: messy/thoughtless.
Phallic stage, 3-5 yrs: F.O.P is the genital area. Development of Oedipus and Electra complex, learning boys and girls are different. (Penis envy etc.) U.C: phallic personality: narcissistic, reckless, possibly gay.
Latency stage, 5-11 yrs: period of calm, earlier conflicts are repressed and pushed into the unconscious mind.
Genital stage, 11+ yrs: sexual desires become conscious alongside puberty. Sexual desires form with those outside the family. U.C: difficulty forming straight relationships.
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach
- concepts are unfalsifiable, lowers internal validity. Popper - this is pseudoscience. Subconscious and stuff can’t be tested.
+ application - Freud’s theory lead to psychoanalysis - a range of techniques which access the unconscious such as hypnosis and dream analysis.
+ huge impact on society. Was the dominant force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century - used to explain a wide range of behaviours. Also links childhood experiences to later development. - Freud said no behaviour is an accident, driven by unconscious forces - ethics - psychic determinism - slip of the tongue is subconscious.
- can’t make universal claims on single case studies.
Explain the Oedipus and Electra Complex
In the Phyllis stage, little boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mum and a hatred for their dad (rival in love)
Fearing their father will castrate them, boys represent for their mum and identify with their dad, taking his gender role and moral values.
Girls experience penis envy, desire their father as the penis is the primary love object and hate their mother. They give up the desire and replace it with babies (identifying with their mother)
Explain the example of Little Hans
He had a phobia of horses.
His phobia was a form of displacement where his repressed fear of his father was transferred onto horses.
So, horses symbolise his unconscious fear of castration from the Oedipus complex
Explain the Humanistic Approach
Emphasise the role of being fully consciously in control of your own destiny. They believe that free-will is a key feature of behaviour and that we consciously choose how we wish to act.
We are subjective to other forces (biological and social influences) but ultimately we have a significant behavioural choice.
The approach is person-centred.
What did Abraham Maslow create and why?
The Hierarchy of Needs
To explain happiness
List the 5 stages in the hierarchy of needs and give examples (starting with the bottom)
Physiological: sleep, water, food, shit, homeostasis
Safety: a home, secure job, secure health, family safety
Love/belonging: sexual intimacy, family, friendship
Self-actualisation: creativity problem-solving, acceptance of facts, lack of prejudice
What is the self concept and who stated its importance?
What is our ideal self?
Carl Rogers (1951)
Self-concept - the way in which a person views them-self
Ideal self - who a person would like to be
What are the 2 important needs Rogers says we have?
Unconditional positive regard from others
The feeling of self-worth
Define congruence and incongruence
Congruence occurs when there is a similarity between our self-concept and ideal self. The more similar, the happier we are, the higher feelings of self-worth are
Incongruence is the opposite you spanner
What does conditions of self-worth relate to?
When parents put conditions on their child in order for them to have worth (eg: “I will only love you if you get straight A’s you prick” - my mum, last night
Explain the type of therapy Rogers created
Client-centred therapy that helps those who have too big a gap between their self-concept and their ideal self
Evaluate the humanistic approach
+ positive approach - humanistic psychologists praised for ‘bringing the person back into psychology’ and promoting a positive image of the human condition compared to Freud. Refreshing and optimistic approach.
+ not reductionist - humanists reject any attempt to break down behaviour. Compare to other approaches - validity by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-life context.
- limited application - Rogerian therapy revolutionised therapy and Maslow hierarchy explained motivation. But it has a limited impact on psychology as a whole. May be due to no scientific evidence, and it’s been described as a series of abstract concepts, not a comprehensive theory.
- culture bias - works in individualist cultures but not collectivist ones (eg. India) which emphasise the need of groups, interdependence and community. The approach is a product of the cultural context in which it was developed - generalisability.
- untestable concepts - validity.
Compare the humanistic and psychodynamic approaches
H: Free-will and individuals have unique personality through choice
P: it is determined by our childhood experiences in the unconscious mind
H: minimal application to treatments
P: contributes to psychoanalysis
H: views people in a positive way and optimises self-belief
P: lacks positivity with regard to people, suggests we are out of control and “slaves” to our unconscious
What are the 5 comparison points?
Views on development Nature vs nature Reductionism Determinism Explaining and treating abnormality
Explain Views On Development
Focuses on how well an approach can explain the development of behaviour over time, and how it is adaptable as we grow.
Explain nature vs nuture
Looks at whether a behaviour is the result of innate biological reasons or influenced by our own environment and upbringing
Explain reductionism
Suggests that a behaviour needs to be broken down into small and simplified components in order to explain it effectively
Explain determinism
This suggests that the reason for behaviour is the same in everyone and therefore we can predict outcomes of behaviour based on the approaches’ explanation
Explain explaining and treating abnormalities
Looks at how we can use an approach to explain individual differences (eg. abnormalities)
