1 Flashcards
Motor control
The study of neural and behavioral processes that control movement and stability.
Motor learning
The process of acquiring information about motor skills and the factors that inhibit or promote acquisition.
Types of human movement
Reflexes
Stereotyped movements
self-expression/goal attainment
Defining skilled performance
The learned ability to bring about predetermined results
This is due to lots of practice
There are three things that a skilled performer needs to have:
Maximum accuracy,
a minimum outlay of energy,
and a minimum amount of time
Connotations of skilled performance
Connotations are feeling that a word will invoke within a person and there are three connotations associated with skilled performance
- Quality of performance does not depend solely on innate abilities, rather it is developed through practice
- They are efficient with respect to their energy spend, and so often they are viewed as lazy
- Flexibility of operations
Defining learning
Learning is the permanent process of acquiring new skills through practice
moving from an unskilled person to skilled
Stages of learning
cognitive stage
associative stage- most time spend here
autonomous stage
Characteristics of learning
consistency- Is performance becoming increasingly more consistent?
improvement
persistence- Is improved performance retained over a longer period of time?
adaptability- being able to rapidly learn new skills and behaviours in response to changing circumstances
An information processing model
is a model in which we process a stimulus, and we give out a response
Bit
The amount of information contained within a signal is measured in bits
One bit
One bit is the amount of information required to reduce our uncertainty by half
equation log 2 N
Sources of information (external and internal)
External: Smell, touch, vision, taste, and hearing
Internal: Proprioception (for letting us know where our limbs are located) and vestibular (for balance).
Methods of studying the human brain
- Study the brains of people with disease or injuries (Phinease Gage)
- Dissect the brain after death
- Physiological processes EEG
- Imaging
Divisions of the central nervous system
Forebrain (cerebrum, limbic system, and basal ganglia)
Brainstem (Diencephalon, midbrain, and hindbrain)
Spinal cord (lumbar, cervical, thoracic, and sacral)
Anatomical planes
Sagittal plane: Left and right
Coronal plane: Front and back
Horizantal plane: Top and bottom
After the damage to Phinease Gage frontal lobe, what changed about him?
His personality changed after damage to his frontal lobe and he becomes aggressive.
Broca vs Wenick
Broca: The patient was not able to speak at all
Wernick: The patient was unable to form coherent sentences
Broadmann
He was a researcher who found 52 different parts of the brain. he was looking at the cell types within the brain
Where does information processing occur?
Central nervous system
Where does information processing occur?
Central nervous system
Where does information processing occur?
The central nervous system, and more specifically in our cerebrum, and more specifically in the cerebral cortex.
Cerebral Cortex
This is the outer layer of the cerebrum and it is made up of the grey matter
The brainstem is made up of the diencephalon, midbrain, and hindbrain; tell me what each part consists of.
Diencephalon
- thalamus
- hypothalamus
midbrain
- tectum
- tegmentum
hindbrain
- RAS reticular formation
- pons
- Medulla oblongata
The brainstem is made up of the diencephalon, midbrain, and hindbrain; tell me what each part consists of.
Diencephalon
- thalamus
- hypothalamus
midbrain
- tectum
- tegmentum
hindbrain
- RAS reticular formation
- pons
- Medulla oblongata
Rostal and caudal
Rostal: Front- towards the beak
Caudal: Back- towards the tail
Cerebrum
Is made up of the white and gray matter
this is where information processing occurs
The cerebrum is basically the two hemispheres together (left and right hemispheres).
Cerebral cortex
This is the outer layer of the cerebrum which is made up of gray matter (cell bodies of neurons).
The cerebral cortex is full of wrinkles and that allows a great amount of brain matter to be fit in a small volume
Gyrus and sulcus
Gyrus: Is a bump or hill
Sulcus: is a valley
Fissure: is a very deep sulcus
Divisions of the cortex
Frontal
Occipital
Temporal
Parietal
Primary sensory area
This is where sensory information is recieved and processed from our sesnses.
It first needs to pass through the thalamus which is our relay station
Primary somatosensory area
Primary auditory area
Primary visual area
Primary motor area- this recieves input and then creates neural impulses
Secondary areas
These areas are located near their primary sensory area and this is where further processing of information occurs
Association areas
These lie outside of the primary sensory areas. They are used for integrating diverse information, planning, storage of memory and attention shifting.
it takes up 80% of the cerebral cortex and by far it is the most complicated part of the cerebral cortex.
Corpus Callosum
Is what connects the left and right hemisphere, and it is very white in nature (full of myelinated axons)
It is located at the bottom longitudinal fissure that separates the left and right hemisphere
it is full of myelinated axons to allow communication bw the right and left hemisphere of the brain
What is the largest white matter structure in the brain?
Corpus callosum- it connects the left and right hemisphere which is located at the bottom of the longitudianl fissure
Occipital lobe
Vision, colour and perception
Temporal lobe
Hearing, smell, speech and memory
Fronal lobe
Voluntary movement, reasoning, planning and problem solving
Parietal lobe
Sensation, reading and spatial awareness
Building blocks of the nervous system
Glia and neurons
What is a neuron and name its different types
Neurons are structures that are used to transmit information to other nerve cells, glands and muscles.
Sensory (afferent)- Their function is to provide the CNS with information about the outside world. Their dendrites are located in the receptors of the periphery. Their cell bodies are located in the basal root ganglia and their axons are in the CNS (spinal cord).
Interneurons - these are located within the CNS, they receive lots of inputs which they integrate and pass onto different parts of the body. They outnumber sensory and motor neurons.
Motor neuron (efferent)- Their function is to control muscle contraction. their cell body is located within the spinal cord (CNS). They are often known as the final common pathway.Their cell bodies are in the ventral horn of the spinal cord.
Neurotransmitters and types of neurotransmitters
They are located within vesicles. They only get released when the action potential propagates down the axon and then these neurotransmitters get released from the vesicles into the synaptic cleft. Small molecule transmitters Gaseous transmitters Lipid transmitters Peptide transmitters
Steps of neurotransmission
Synthesis and storage
Release
Binding to receptor
Re-uptake
Chemicals that disrupt neurotransmission
Alcohol Cannabis Stimulants (cocaine) Nerve gas Animal poisons
Types of glial cells in the PNS
Schwann cells and satellite cells
Glial cells
They maintain homeostasis, form myelin, provide support and protection for neurons.
Satellite cells
They provide physical support for the neurons in the PNS
Schwann cells
They do the myelination of the neurons within the PNS
Schwann cells
They do the myelination of the neurons within the PNS
Neurons vs glial cells
Neurons: They have 2 projections (dendrite and axons), they have a neural synapse and they can generate action potentials
Glial cells: They have 1 projection, they have a resting membrane potential and they have no chemical synapses
Neurons vs glial cells
Neurons: They have 2 projections (dendrite and axons), they have a neural synapse and they can generate action potentials
Glial cells: They have 1 projection, they have a resting membrane potential and they have no chemical synapses
Why do kids not have a strong and smooth movement?
That is because their axons are not myelinated (Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes) which causes them to have a slow and poor coordination.
As we age, our axons become myelinated
Types of neurotransmitters
Small molecule transmitters
Gaseous transmitters
Lipid transmitters
Peptide transmitters
How does alcohol affect the frontal lobe?
Loss of reasoning, cation, inhibitions, sociability, talkatively, and intelligence
How does alcohol affect the temporal lobe?
Slurred speech, and impaired hearing
How does alcohol affect the parietal lobe?
Loss of fine motor skills, slower reaction time and shaking
How does alcohol affect the occipital lobe?
Blurred vision, poor distance judgment
How does alcohol affect the brainstem?
Loss of vital functions
How does alcohol affect the cerebellum?
Lack of muscle coordination and balance
How does alcohol affect the cerebellum?
Lack of muscle coordination and balance
How does cocaine affect neurotransmission process?
It blocks the re uptake of dopamine from the synaptic cleft resulting in a euphoric feeling. It also increases the release of dopamine from the neurotransmitters.
This is highly addictive since it results in a decrease in dopamine synthesis which results in depression.
How does nerve gases affect neurotransmission process?
Nerve gases disrupt the singling pathway to organs.
The disruption is caused by the blocking of acetylcholinesterase that breakdowns acetylcholine.
death by asphyxiation or cardiac arrest may follow in minutes.
How does animal poisons affect neurotransmission process?
Animal poisons are made up of proteins and enzymes. There are three components to it:
- Cytotoxins: Destroy cells slow acting
- Neurotoxins: Block nerve transmission or overload transmission
- Hemotoxins: Affects blood, causes blood clots, destroy blood vessel, or cause internal bleeding
Glial cells in the CNS
Astrocytes: star shaped cells that provide physical and nutritional support for neurons.
they clean debris, transport nutrients to neurons, hold neurons in place, and digest parts of dead neurons.
Microglia: are the immune cells of the CNS. they migrate to the site of damage, they can proliferate and become phagocytes.
oligodendrocytes: Provide the insulation to neurons in the CNS
