1-13 lectures Flashcards
1
Q
what is the largest visable organ on the human body?
A
the skin
2
Q
how much of the total body weigh is skin in a percentage?
A
16%
3
Q
around how much surface area is the skin?
A
1.5-2m squared
4
Q
what are 2 key factors of the skin?
A
bare and sweaty
5
Q
why do we have more sweat glands than a monkey?
A
because we have bare skin
6
Q
what are some features of the skin?
A
protects us
produces keratin
produces melanin
used as a storage for lipids
can sense things around us
7
Q
how many types of tissue make up the skin?
A
4
8
Q
what are the 3 layers that our skin consist of?
A
epidermis
dermis
hypodermis
9
Q
what is the structure of the epidermis?
A
stratified squamous cells
mostly keratinocytes
no blood circulation
10
Q
what is the structure of the dermis?
A
protein fibers for strength
vascular to norish the epidermis
11
Q
structure of the hypodermis?
A
adipose tissue
12
Q
what layers make up the cutaneous layers?
A
epidermis and dermis
13
Q
what layer makes up the subcutaneous layer?
A
the hypodermis
14
Q
what does the epidermis ridges allow?
A
dermis to protect
dermal papilla reaches closer to give nutrients to the epidermis
15
Q
what are the 2 types of epithelia?
A
simple and stratified
16
Q
what are the 3 structures of epithelial?
A
squamous
cuboidal
columinar
17
Q
what are the 4 layers to the epidermis on thin skin?
A
conified
granular
spinous
basal
18
Q
what does the granular layer do?
A
forces cells up and drys the nuclei and kills them
19
Q
what prevents chemicals from entering the cell?
A
a waxy material which fills the gaps between the cells
20
Q
what 2 layers share the basement mambrane?
A
the epidermis and the dermis
21
Q
how many layers does thin skin have?
A
4
22
Q
how many layers does thick skin have?
A
5
23
Q
what is the extra layer in the thick skin?
A
stratum lucidium
24
Q
what is the plexus?
A
a network
25
what are the 2 layers of the dermis?
papillary layer
reticular layer
26
what does the papillary layer consist of?
highly vascular tissue
27
what does the reticular layer consist of?
mesh like
made of collagen and elastin fibers
28
what are the plexuses of the dermis?
cutaneous and subpapillary
29
what is the cutaneous layer?
network of blood vessels that supplies the hypodermis
30
what is the subpapillary layer?
branches for the cutaneous plexus
lies deep in the papillary layer
network of blood vessels providing for the dermis and the epidermis
31
what are adipocytes?
produce subcutaneous fat which provides energy and insulation
32
what are first degree burns?
superficial only
leaves the skin pink/red, dry, painful
skin still has water and bacterial barrier
33
what are second degree burns?
affects epidermis and some amounts of the dermis
painful, moist, red and blistered
hair follicles, sweat glands may remain intact
may have some loss of sensation
34
what are third degree burns?
extends into the subcutaneous tissue and may involve bone and muscle
varies in colour from a waxy white, red, and black even
hard, dry and leathery skin
no pain as receptors have been destroyed so area is usually numb
may require skin grafting
35
where do desmosomes occur?
all layers in the epidermis
36
what causes desmosomes to lose grip?
dehydration
37
where are there no hairs on your body?
palms of the hands, soles and lips
38
what are hair shafts?
dead keratinized cells
39
what does hair consists of?
arrector pili muscles
40
what does arrector pili muscles do?
orcastrate the goosebumps
this traps air which is used to avoid losing heat to the enviroment
41
what is the hair root plexus?
a collection of nerve ending of sensory nerves
they send sensations to the brain
42
what are sebaceous glands made of?
epithelial cells
43
what are sebaceous glands?
produce oily secretion called sebum which keeps the hair shaft moisturized.
44
what is sebum?
water repellant properties
45
what causes acne?
too much oil can block up the pores and leads to infections
46
what is the animal version of sebum?
lamolin
47
what are eccrine glands?
found all over the body, regualte the body temperature and is a means of secretions
48
what are apocrine glands?
found in the armpits, groin and around the nipples
potetial oderus secretions and they have to go through hair follicles
these are influenced by hormones
49
what are the 3 types of receptors?
tactile
lamellar
bulbous
50
what are nails?
used for the protection of fingers and toes and used for an enhanced sensation
51
what does aging do to the epidermis and dermis?
makes it thinner due to a decrease in blood flow
52
what does smoking do to the skin?
thinner and premature skin aging
53
what is melanin?
produced in melanocytes in the basement membranes of the epidermis
protects us from UV damage
54
what are melanocytes?
package melanin in vesicles and are only found in the stratum basale
55
what is melanosomes?
the vesicles that carry the melanin and are found thropughout the epidermis
56
what are moles?
cluster of melanocytes
57
what are freckles?
melanocytes over producing melanosomes which is triggered by the exposure to the sun
58
what do people living closer to the equator darker?
as they have more exposure to the sun
59
what does too little vitamin D lead to?
bowed legs
60
what are the 2 types for skin cancer?
basal cell carcinoma
malignant melanoma
61
what is basal cell carcinoma?
common and originates in the stratum basal
the spread is rare
62
what is the malignant melanoma?
rare but deadly and originates in melanocytes
spreads fast
63
what are tattoos?
usually deposited on the dermis layer
they are captured inside immune cells so they dont move around the skin
64
what are free nerve endings?
the most common type of receptor in the skin and is most superficail
the branches extending into the epidermis with small swellinhgs at the distal ends called sensory terminals
65
what are sensory terminals?
they respond to chemical stimuli like histomine which is an alergic reaction
these respond mainly to temperature, painful stimuli
66
what are peritrichial endings?
free nerve endings that are wrapped around hair follicles that can sense hair displacement
67
what are tactile discs?
are loctated in the deepest layer of the epidermis
they relay stimulus to the sensory nerve endings
they are sensitive to an objects physical features such as fine touch and light pressure aswell as texture, shape and edges
68
what type of nerves are best for 2 point discrimination?
tactile discs
69
what are tactile corpuscles?
located in the papillary layer of the dermis
contains alot of these axons that are unmylinated sensory terminals surrounded by modified schwann cells
these sense delicate touch such as movement of an object on the surface of the skin aswell as light pressure and low frequency vibrations
70
what are lamellar corpuscles?
scattered deep in the dermis and hypodermis
looks like rings of collagen and lamellar
these can sense deep pressure and vibrations when the interstitial fluid ripples
71
what produces the collagen in lamellar corpuscles?
fibroblasts
72
what are bulbous corpuscles?
located in the dermis and subcutaneous tissue
these are intertwinned with the core of the collagen fibers with capsules surrounding the entire structure
they can sense sustained deep pressure and stretching or distortion of the skin
73
what nerves are found in joints?
bulbous corpuscles to signal the degree of the joint rotation
74
what is npradrenaline?
acts on alpha 1 adrenergic receptors on smooth muscles in the skin
these reduces blood flow
75
what is the average core body temperature?
around 37 degrees
76
what nervous system does eccrine glands work through?
the sympathetic nervous system
77
what happens if the blood temperature goes above the set point?
then the heat loss center is activated
78
what happens if the heat loss center is activated?
vase restriction occurs aswell as sweating
respiratory rate increases
79
what detects if the blood temperature is below the set point?
chemical thermoreceptors
80
what happens if the body temperature is below the set point?
increases the generation of body heat such as shivering and trapping of air in goosebumps
81
what hormone incraeses the rate of metabolism?
thyroxine
82
where is the center of heat loss and gain found?
in the pre-optic area of the hypothalamus with neurons
83
what is the hearts main prupose?
to pump blood around the body
84
what do arteries do?
distribute the blood to a series of tissue like pipes
85
what do capillaries do?
exchange between different bloods to tissues
86
what do veins do?
drain blood back towards the heart
87
what are lymphatic tissues?
draining of lymph back to the heart
88
what is vascular tissue made of?
connective tissues and cells
89
what cells make up vascular tissues?
epithelia tissue and muscle tissue
90
where is cardiac muscles found?
within the heart
91
where is smooth muscle found?
in the veins and arteries
92
what is the blood vascular system?
closed supply and drainage system
a continuous loop
93
what is the lymphatic vascular system?
open-entry drainage system
one-way system
94
what side of the heart is the pulmonary system?
the right side
95
what is the pulmonary system?
goes to the lungs and picks up oxygen and then brings it back to the heart
96
what side of the heart is the systemic side?
the left side
97
what is the systemic system?
distributes the oxygenated blood to a bunch of capillary networks to exchange the blood and take the deoxygenated blood back to the heart
98
what does the lymphatic vascular system do?
poris finger like endings to pick up any unwanted fluid in the one-way drainage system
99
where are major arteries located?
situated to avoid damage
100
what are fenestrated capillaries?
leaky
101
what are continuous capillaries?
contolled/tight
102
what are the 3 pathways for drainage?
deep veins
superficail veins
lymphatics
103
what is the pointed end of the heart called?
the apex
104
what is the braod end of the heart called?
the base
105
where does the base of the heart sit?
between the 2nd and 3rd ribs
106
where odes the apex of the heart sit?
between the 5th and 6th ribs
107
what is the heart sitting like?
rotated to the left and tilted posteriorly
108
how many chambers are there in the heart?
4
109
what is the atrium?
the recieveing chamber that drains blood into the ventricle
110
what is a ventricle?
recieves blood from the atrium and pumps it back out of the heart to the capillary networks
111
what is the biggest artery of the heart?
the aorta
112
what feeds the right atrium?
superior vena cava
inferior vena cava
coronbary sinus
113
what feeds the left atrium?
4 pulmonary veins
114
what are the three layers of the heart?
endocardium
myocardium
epicardium
115
wht does endo mean?
within
116
what does myo mean?
muscle
117
what does epi mean?
ontop
118
what does cardium mean?
heart
119
what is the pericardium?
a sac that the heart sits in around the heart that protects the heart and keeps the heart lubricated while pumping
120
how much thicker is the myocardium in the left side of the heart compared to the right side?
3 times thicker
121
why is the myocardium thicker in the left side of the heart?
because it has to pump the blood further around the body than the pulmonary system
122
what is the epicardium fused to?
the pericardium
123
how many valves are in the heart?
4
124
what are the 2 names of the valves?
atrioventricular
semilunar
125
what are atrioventricular valves?
stops the backflow of blood when the heart muscles contract and the pressure increases
126
what is the right AV valve called?
tricuspid
127
what is the left AV valve called?
bicuspid
128
what is diastole?
the filling phase where the chambers fill with blood and the AV valves are open
129
what is systole?
the contractile phase and the AV valves are pushed shut and the pressure increases again and the blood is pumped out the semilunar valves
130
what are semilunar valves?
prevents blood from coming back into the ventricles and stops the back flow
131
what is the right semilunar valve called?
the pulmonary valve
132
what is the left semilunar valve called?
aortic valve
133
what are papillary muscles?
tenderous strands that attach to the free edge that stops the leaflets from folding back into the atrium and allowing backflow
134
what valves are papillary muscles on?
AV valves
135
why dont semilunar valves have papillary muscles?
because there is alot less pressure
136
what does the right coronary artery run into?
it runs down over the pericardium to the ventricle wall
137
what does the left coronary artery run into?
branches into 2 big arteries called the circumflex artery and the interventricular artery
138
where does the hearts drainage go?
through the cardiac veins
139
where does the small cardiac vein take blood from?
the right coronary artery
140
what is the great cardiac vein drain from?
the left coronary vein
141
what does the coronary sinus drain into?
drains the venous blood back into the heart
142
what does TS mean?
transverse section
143
what does LS mean?
longitudinal section
144
what connects the cardiac muscle cells with neighbouring cells?
intercalated discs
145
what is the difference between the cardiac muscle cell and skeletal muscle cell?
cardiac has a central nucleus whereas skeletal has a peripheral nucleus
146
what does cardiac muscle have alot of?
mitochondria
147
what are adhesive belts?
link actin of one cell to the actin in another cell and can casue the function from one cell to the next
148
what are desmosomes?
link cytokeratin of one cell to the cytokeratin in another cell which fuses the 2 together
149
what is a gap junction?
also known as a communication junction which uses electrochemical communication
150
what are adhesive belts, desmosomes and gap junctions?
intercalated discs
151
what does the thoratic artery split into?
2 common ilia arterys
152
what do ilia arteries run to?
femoral arteries?
153
what do femoral arteries lead to?
popliteal arteries
154
where are popliteal arteries located?
posterior to the knee cap
155
what does the popliteal artery lead to?
posterior tibial artery
156
what supplies the foot with blood?
planar arch
157
where does the venous drainage start in the feet?
plantar venous arch
158
where does the plantar venous arch lead to?
the posterior tibial veins
159
where does the femoral vein lead to?
external iliac vein
159
where does the posterior venous vein lead to?
femoral vein
160
where does the external iliac vein lead to?
the common iliac vein
161
where does the common iliac vein lead to?
these lead to the inferior vena cava
162
what are the 3 layers of the blood vessels?
tunica intima
tunica media
tunica adventia
162
what is the tunica intima?
inner most layer of the blood vessels
simple squamous epithelium which lines the lumen
its a very thin layer which has a internal elastic lamina which is well developed in the arteries
163
what is the tunica media?
is a smooth muscle dense layer which is involuntary and is surrounded by a variety of connective tissue
this is the thickest layer
164
what is the tunica adventia?
is loose FCT that is high in collagen and variable amount of elastin
164
what are benefits of the aorta having more elastin?
dampens the pulsarity of systolic and diastolic pressure of blood
164
what are muscular arterys?
less elatin than muscle tissue
165
what are venules?
the smallest veins at the base of the capillaries which is the start of collecting (drainage) system
166
what are arterioles?
the smallest arteries that drans into the capillaries
they are important for the resistance vessels of the circulation determine blood pressure
167
why are there valves in the veins?
to stop the backflow in the veins and blood falling back down due to gravity
167
what are the functions of the veins?
low pressure
large volume transport
one-way flow (unidirectional)
capacitance vessels
168
which layer is thinner in veins compared to arteries?
tunica media
168
what is the thickest layer of the veins?
tunica adventitia
169
what is the site of exchange between the blood and tissues?
capillaries
169
what are RBCs?
red blood cells
169
what are varicase veins?
diluted walls that makes the valves leaky so they dont function correctly
169
what allows RBCs to travel in single file?
the capillary lumen is just bigger than the RBCs
169
how do RBCs travel through the capillaries?
slow, smooth and single file
169
what is the structure of the capillaries?
thin wall with a large cross-sectional area
170
what is a vascular shunt?
the straight line from the arterioles to the venules controlled by sphincters
they bypass the capillary bed
170
what is the benefits of the single file blood flow through the capillaries?
transfers oxygen easier as the haemoglobin is closer to the lumen capillary wall
170
what junctions are usesd for oxygen exchange?
intercellular junctions
171
what are the sphincters made of?
smooth muscle to control the flow rate
171
what are continuous capillaries?
mainly one epithelia cell that runs the perimeter of the lumen
the basal lamina is a connective tissue that wraps the outside of the continuous capillary made up of extracellular matrix
171
what are the 3 types of capillaries?
continuous
fenestrated
sinusodial
171
what are fenestrated capillaries?
has physical openings in the epithelia cell wall making easier for fluids to travel to the basal lamina which leads to the capillary network being leaky
172
structure of lymphatic vessels?
large, blind ending capillaries
172
what are lacteals?
drain fat lymph into the collecting vessel
173
what are sinusidial capillaries?
wider in diameter so doesnt need RBCs travelling in a single file
the basement menbrane is incomplete so fluid is leaving the capillary, not the RBCs themselves
very leaky
174
what is a cisterna chyli?
what lacteals drain into these and collect these lacteals
175
what is the thoratic duct?
a large lymphatic cannel that the small lymphatic collecting vessels lead to
176
what does the lymphatic system do with capillarys?
drain the fluid that are leaking out of the capillaries and takes it to the lymph node to analyse the fluid for pathogens
177
what does the thoratic duct lead into?
the left subclavian vein
178
where does the right lymphatic system lead into?
the right subclavian vein
179
where is the cervical node located?
in the neck
179
where is the axillory nodes located?
the armpits
180
where are the inguinal node located?
the groin
181
where does the arterial blood flow to?
away from the heart
182
where does the venous blood flow to?
towards the heart
183
does the side of the heat work in parrallel?
yessir
184
which chambers of the hearts work together?
the atriums work together and the ventricles work together
185
why is the aorta large?
because it has to travel further
186
what chambers contract first?
the atrias
187
what chambers contract second?
the ventricles
188
what happens when the atrium contracts?
feeding the maximum amount of blood to fill the ventricles after passive refilling
189
what happens when the atrium relaxes?
the valves close
190
what happens when the ventricles contract?
builds up pressure to blow the exit valves open and maximizes the blood flow to push the blood around the body
191
what are the 2 exit valves?
aortic
pulmonary
192
what is actin?
a thin filament
193
what is myosin?
thick filaments
194
what are bundles of actin and myosin called?
myofibrils
195
what is the cellular mechanism of cardiac contraction?
Ca+ levels increase and more Ca+ is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
myosin binds to the actin to form cross-bridges
myosin pulls on actin to shorten the sarcomere and generate force
196
what activates the contractions of the heart?
calcium
197
how many myocytes become activated during each heart beat?
all of them
198
what produces a greater force in the heart?
more cross-bridges
199
how many myocytes relax on each beat?
all of them
200
what are the 2 features of diastole?
relaxation
falling pressure
200
what are 2 features of systole?
contraction
rising pressure
201
what happens when the atrial diastole begin?
ventricle systole
202
when does the heart beat cycle start?
just before the atrial systole
202
what period is longer diastole or systole?
diastole
202
what is the lowest point on the trace?
diastolic pressure
202
what generates the beating sound within the heart?
the valves closing
202
what is the highest point on a trace?
systolic pressure
202
what pressure is higher, pulmonary or systemic?
systemic
203
what does isovolumetric mean?
the volume isnt changing
203
what is the difference between the highest and lowest point of a trace called?
pulse pressure
203
what si the mean pressure?
the average pressure across thefull cycle
204
what is hypertension?
high blood pressure
204
what is hypotension?
low blood pressure
205
what do contractile cells look like?
strippy as it has alot of actin and myosin
205
what percentage of the heart is electrical cells?
1%
205
what are the 2 populations of cells within the heart?
contractile cells
electrical cells
205
what do electrical cells do?
they are interconnected but dont contract but send signals
they are conducting cells such as purkinje cells and AV nodal cells
205
what do electrical cells look like?
pale appearance
205
what percentage of the heart cells is contractile?
99%
206
where does depolarisation start?
sinoatrial node (SAN)
207
what does the SAN do?
generates an electrical signal also known as action potentials
the electrical signal is faster than the nerves
when these reach the muscle cells it causes a contraction
208
what connects the cardiac cells?
intercalated disks
209
what does the interatrial bundles do?
activates the left atrium at the same time as the AV node is activating the right atrium
209
what is the electrocardiogram (ECG) do?
puts leads that attach to the surface of the skin that uses to detect changes in the cell voltages
209
what is quiescence?
quiet or nothing is happening at the time
209
what does a p wave indicate?
the atrium polarisation
209
what do the gaps in the intercalated disks do?
the small holes allow charged particles to move between the cells
209
what is a functional syncytium?
all the cardiac cells behaving as one
209
why is the AV node slow and quiet?
allows the atrium to finish there job before the ventricles begin contracting
210
what is a T wave?
the repolarisation of the ventricles
210
what happens during the QRS complex?
atrium repolarising and ventricular polarisation
211
what does a flat line in the ECG mean?
there is no change
211
where is the mean blood pressure on the chart?
just below the middle of the chart
211
what does MAP mean?
mean arterial pressure
211
what is delta p mean?
difference in pressure
211
is the blood pressure high or low in the aterial system?
high
211
is the blood pressure high or low in the venous system?
low
212
how do we calculate flow?
pressure difference / resistance
212
what is haemodynamic?
how blood flows in a single vessel
213
how do we calculate the MAP?
flow * resistance
213
what does the baroreceptors do?
sends signals to the bcardiac centers of the brain stem
213
how do we calculate CO?
SV * HR
213
how does the brake neural output work?
goes through the vagus nerve straight to the (SA) node to decrease heart rate
213
what happens when the blood flows into the arteries?
fills arteries
increases arterial blood volume
raises arterial pressure
213
what is TPR?
total peripheral resistance
213
what does high pressure lead to?
full control of the flow
213
how does the accelerator neural output work?
goes through the sympathetic trunk ganglion to the SA node and the ventricular muscle to increase how hard it pumps
213
what happens when the blood flows out of the arteries?
drains arteries
decreases arterial blood volume
lowers arterial pressure
213
another way to calculate the MAP?
CO * TPR
213
what is CO?
cardiac output
213
what is HR?
heart rate (beats per minuite)
213
what increases the blood flow to during exercise?
muscles
heart
skin
213
what is SV?
stroke volume
213
what allows the required blood to enter the different areas of the body?
taps
213
how much blood goes to the organs?
the same aount that comes out of the organs
214
what does CO depend on?
depend on what sort of organism you are
exercise can increase the CO by increasing the HR (beats per minute)
214
what are the 2 baroreceptors?
aortic arch and the carotid sinus
214
how does afferent input of the brainstem from the CO done?
baroreceptors which are blood pressure sensors
214
what decreases the blood flow to during exercise?
GI tract
kidneys
214
when we exercise what happens to the distribution of oxygenated blood to the organs that arent used in the exercise?
they decrease the blood flow to these organs
214
what remains the same blood flow during exercise?
brain
214
what happens to the systemic circulation during exercise?
increased CO
constant MAP
decreased TPR
215
what does bigger pipes equal?
bigger flow
216
what does decreasing the resistance do?
increases the flow
217
what are the precapillary sphincters made of?
smooth muscle cells
218
what does the precapillary sphincters do?
decide the amount of blood that is allowed to enter the arterioles
219
what does a small radius mean?
an increase in resistance and a decrease in flow which is done by the taps
220
what does blood distribution consist of?
the diameter of the lumen
221
what changes the radius of the lumen?
the smooth muscle cells
222
what does a small change in the arteriole size lead to?
a big change in blood flow
223
what blood vessel holds the most blood?
veins
224
what is excess blood called?
the reserve
225
where is the reserve blood stored?
in the venous circulation
226
what does our venous system have when is has a high volume?
low pressure system
227
why can veins hold the reserve volume of blood?
because the tunica media is alot thinner than that of the arteries
228
what is the ability to stretch and hold more storage called?
compliance
229
what is compliance?
a vessel allows deformation in response to an applied force
230
how do we calculate compliance?
delta V / delta P
231
why do arteries have less compliance than veins?
because they have a thicker tunica media
232
what does vasoconstricting our veins do?
if blood pressure is low then we can vasoconstruct to move the reserve blood into the blood circuit to maintain arterial pressure
233
what is venous pulling?
when we are standing and the blood is drawn to the feet due to gravity
234
what tone when talking about veins muscles?
the wrapping of veins with muscles to stop the blood from back flowing down the legs towards the feet again
235
what happens as we increase the venous return to the heart?
we increase the stroke output which increases cardiac output
236
where does blood transport O2, nutrients and water to?
our tissues
237
where does blood transport CO2 and waste products to?
lungs and the kidneys
238
how can blood reduce body heat?
by getting closer to the skin which is why we go pink when we are hot
239
what are the immune functions of blood?
white blood cells and immunoglobins to fight infections
240
how does the blood coagulate and why?
uses platelets and coagulation factors to stop the bleeding
241
what is plasma made of?
plasma proteins, water and formed elements
242
what is 50/50 of the blood made of?
plasma and RBCs
243
what do plasma proteins do?
maintain osmotic pressure
immune response
coagulation factors
enzymes
244
what holds the heat in the blood?
the water that is in the plasma
245
what are the formed elements made out of?
plateletes
white blood cells
red blood cells
246
what do white blood cells do?
seek and destroy invading pathogens
247
what is haematopoiesis?
the formation of red blood cells which originates in the red marrow which has red stem cells
248
what are hemocytoblasts?
another work for red stem cells
249
what are platelets?
parts of cells from a destroyed megakaryocytes
250
do RBCs have a nucleus?
no
251
why dont RBCs have a nucleus?
to fit more haemoglobin into the cell
252
what is erythropoietin?
helps the formation of RBCs
253
why is RBCs biconcave disc shape?
has a large surface area to volume ratio which allows for efficient diffusion of gasses
Its flexible for movement to move throgh narrow capillaries
254
what is a third of the RBCs mass?
haemoglobin
255
what part of the haem binds to the oxygen?
the iron binds to the oxygen
256
how many haem units does 1 haemoglobin have?
4
257
how many oxygens can bind to a haemoglobin at once?
4
258
what is the fraction of the blood occupied by RBCs called?
haematrcrit or 'packed cell volume' (PCV)
258
what does a centrifuge do?
spins the blood and seperates it into its main components
258
how can we measure the cell concentration?
with a centrifuge
259
what can haemoglobin concetration tell us?
how much O2 can be carried in the blood
259
what can cause anaemia?
Fe deficiency in a diet
259
what does low haemoglobin lead to?
anaemia
259
what is anaemia?
blood carries less O2 which reduces amount of delivery to tissues and reduces exercise ability
260
what stimulates the production of RBCs?
erythropoietin
260
what senses the low levels of O2?
kidneys
260
what does EPO do?
tells the red marrow to make more RBCs
260
what is released when there are low levels of oxygen?
EPO
