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Hubs192 > 1-13 lectures > Flashcards

1-13 lectures Flashcards

1
Q

what is the largest visable organ on the human body?

A

the skin

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2
Q

how much of the total body weigh is skin in a percentage?

A

16%

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3
Q

around how much surface area is the skin?

A

1.5-2m squared

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4
Q

what are 2 key factors of the skin?

A

bare and sweaty

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5
Q

why do we have more sweat glands than a monkey?

A

because we have bare skin

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6
Q

what are some features of the skin?

A

protects us
produces keratin
produces melanin
used as a storage for lipids
can sense things around us

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7
Q

how many types of tissue make up the skin?

A

4

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8
Q

what are the 3 layers that our skin consist of?

A

epidermis
dermis
hypodermis

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9
Q

what is the structure of the epidermis?

A

stratified squamous cells
mostly keratinocytes
no blood circulation

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10
Q

what is the structure of the dermis?

A

protein fibers for strength
vascular to norish the epidermis

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11
Q

structure of the hypodermis?

A

adipose tissue

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12
Q

what layers make up the cutaneous layers?

A

epidermis and dermis

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13
Q

what layer makes up the subcutaneous layer?

A

the hypodermis

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14
Q

what does the epidermis ridges allow?

A

dermis to protect
dermal papilla reaches closer to give nutrients to the epidermis

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15
Q

what are the 2 types of epithelia?

A

simple and stratified

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16
Q

what are the 3 structures of epithelial?

A

squamous
cuboidal
columinar

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17
Q

what are the 4 layers to the epidermis on thin skin?

A

conified
granular
spinous
basal

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18
Q

what does the granular layer do?

A

forces cells up and drys the nuclei and kills them

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19
Q

what prevents chemicals from entering the cell?

A

a waxy material which fills the gaps between the cells

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20
Q

what 2 layers share the basement mambrane?

A

the epidermis and the dermis

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21
Q

how many layers does thin skin have?

A

4

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22
Q

how many layers does thick skin have?

A

5

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23
Q

what is the extra layer in the thick skin?

A

stratum lucidium

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24
Q

what is the plexus?

A

a network

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25
Q

what are the 2 layers of the dermis?

A

papillary layer
reticular layer

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26
Q

what does the papillary layer consist of?

A

highly vascular tissue

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27
Q

what does the reticular layer consist of?

A

mesh like
made of collagen and elastin fibers

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28
Q

what are the plexuses of the dermis?

A

cutaneous and subpapillary

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29
Q

what is the cutaneous layer?

A

network of blood vessels that supplies the hypodermis

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30
Q

what is the subpapillary layer?

A

branches for the cutaneous plexus
lies deep in the papillary layer
network of blood vessels providing for the dermis and the epidermis

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31
Q

what are adipocytes?

A

produce subcutaneous fat which provides energy and insulation

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32
Q

what are first degree burns?

A

superficial only
leaves the skin pink/red, dry, painful
skin still has water and bacterial barrier

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33
Q

what are second degree burns?

A

affects epidermis and some amounts of the dermis
painful, moist, red and blistered
hair follicles, sweat glands may remain intact
may have some loss of sensation

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34
Q

what are third degree burns?

A

extends into the subcutaneous tissue and may involve bone and muscle
varies in colour from a waxy white, red, and black even
hard, dry and leathery skin
no pain as receptors have been destroyed so area is usually numb
may require skin grafting

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35
Q

where do desmosomes occur?

A

all layers in the epidermis

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36
Q

what causes desmosomes to lose grip?

A

dehydration

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37
Q

where are there no hairs on your body?

A

palms of the hands, soles and lips

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38
Q

what are hair shafts?

A

dead keratinized cells

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39
Q

what does hair consists of?

A

arrector pili muscles

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40
Q

what does arrector pili muscles do?

A

orcastrate the goosebumps
this traps air which is used to avoid losing heat to the enviroment

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41
Q

what is the hair root plexus?

A

a collection of nerve ending of sensory nerves
they send sensations to the brain

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42
Q

what are sebaceous glands made of?

A

epithelial cells

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43
Q

what are sebaceous glands?

A

produce oily secretion called sebum which keeps the hair shaft moisturized.

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44
Q

what is sebum?

A

water repellant properties

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45
Q

what causes acne?

A

too much oil can block up the pores and leads to infections

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46
Q

what is the animal version of sebum?

A

lamolin

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47
Q

what are eccrine glands?

A

found all over the body, regualte the body temperature and is a means of secretions

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48
Q

what are apocrine glands?

A

found in the armpits, groin and around the nipples
potetial oderus secretions and they have to go through hair follicles
these are influenced by hormones

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49
Q

what are the 3 types of receptors?

A

tactile
lamellar
bulbous

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50
Q

what are nails?

A

used for the protection of fingers and toes and used for an enhanced sensation

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51
Q

what does aging do to the epidermis and dermis?

A

makes it thinner due to a decrease in blood flow

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52
Q

what does smoking do to the skin?

A

thinner and premature skin aging

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53
Q

what is melanin?

A

produced in melanocytes in the basement membranes of the epidermis
protects us from UV damage

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54
Q

what are melanocytes?

A

package melanin in vesicles and are only found in the stratum basale

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55
Q

what is melanosomes?

A

the vesicles that carry the melanin and are found thropughout the epidermis

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56
Q

what are moles?

A

cluster of melanocytes

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57
Q

what are freckles?

A

melanocytes over producing melanosomes which is triggered by the exposure to the sun

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58
Q

what do people living closer to the equator darker?

A

as they have more exposure to the sun

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59
Q

what does too little vitamin D lead to?

A

bowed legs

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60
Q

what are the 2 types for skin cancer?

A

basal cell carcinoma
malignant melanoma

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61
Q

what is basal cell carcinoma?

A

common and originates in the stratum basal
the spread is rare

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62
Q

what is the malignant melanoma?

A

rare but deadly and originates in melanocytes
spreads fast

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63
Q

what are tattoos?

A

usually deposited on the dermis layer
they are captured inside immune cells so they dont move around the skin

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64
Q

what are free nerve endings?

A

the most common type of receptor in the skin and is most superficail
the branches extending into the epidermis with small swellinhgs at the distal ends called sensory terminals

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65
Q

what are sensory terminals?

A

they respond to chemical stimuli like histomine which is an alergic reaction
these respond mainly to temperature, painful stimuli

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66
Q

what are peritrichial endings?

A

free nerve endings that are wrapped around hair follicles that can sense hair displacement

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67
Q

what are tactile discs?

A

are loctated in the deepest layer of the epidermis
they relay stimulus to the sensory nerve endings
they are sensitive to an objects physical features such as fine touch and light pressure aswell as texture, shape and edges

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68
Q

what type of nerves are best for 2 point discrimination?

A

tactile discs

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69
Q

what are tactile corpuscles?

A

located in the papillary layer of the dermis
contains alot of these axons that are unmylinated sensory terminals surrounded by modified schwann cells
these sense delicate touch such as movement of an object on the surface of the skin aswell as light pressure and low frequency vibrations

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70
Q

what are lamellar corpuscles?

A

scattered deep in the dermis and hypodermis
looks like rings of collagen and lamellar
these can sense deep pressure and vibrations when the interstitial fluid ripples

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71
Q

what produces the collagen in lamellar corpuscles?

A

fibroblasts

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72
Q

what are bulbous corpuscles?

A

located in the dermis and subcutaneous tissue
these are intertwinned with the core of the collagen fibers with capsules surrounding the entire structure
they can sense sustained deep pressure and stretching or distortion of the skin

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73
Q

what nerves are found in joints?

A

bulbous corpuscles to signal the degree of the joint rotation

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74
Q

what is npradrenaline?

A

acts on alpha 1 adrenergic receptors on smooth muscles in the skin
these reduces blood flow

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75
Q

what is the average core body temperature?

A

around 37 degrees

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76
Q

what nervous system does eccrine glands work through?

A

the sympathetic nervous system

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77
Q

what happens if the blood temperature goes above the set point?

A

then the heat loss center is activated

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78
Q

what happens if the heat loss center is activated?

A

vase restriction occurs aswell as sweating
respiratory rate increases

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79
Q

what detects if the blood temperature is below the set point?

A

chemical thermoreceptors

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80
Q

what happens if the body temperature is below the set point?

A

increases the generation of body heat such as shivering and trapping of air in goosebumps

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81
Q

what hormone incraeses the rate of metabolism?

A

thyroxine

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82
Q

where is the center of heat loss and gain found?

A

in the pre-optic area of the hypothalamus with neurons

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83
Q

what is the hearts main prupose?

A

to pump blood around the body

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84
Q

what do arteries do?

A

distribute the blood to a series of tissue like pipes

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85
Q

what do capillaries do?

A

exchange between different bloods to tissues

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86
Q

what do veins do?

A

drain blood back towards the heart

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87
Q

what are lymphatic tissues?

A

draining of lymph back to the heart

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88
Q

what is vascular tissue made of?

A

connective tissues and cells

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89
Q

what cells make up vascular tissues?

A

epithelia tissue and muscle tissue

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90
Q

where is cardiac muscles found?

A

within the heart

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91
Q

where is smooth muscle found?

A

in the veins and arteries

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92
Q

what is the blood vascular system?

A

closed supply and drainage system
a continuous loop

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93
Q

what is the lymphatic vascular system?

A

open-entry drainage system
one-way system

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94
Q

what side of the heart is the pulmonary system?

A

the right side

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95
Q

what is the pulmonary system?

A

goes to the lungs and picks up oxygen and then brings it back to the heart

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96
Q

what side of the heart is the systemic side?

A

the left side

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97
Q

what is the systemic system?

A

distributes the oxygenated blood to a bunch of capillary networks to exchange the blood and take the deoxygenated blood back to the heart

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98
Q

what does the lymphatic vascular system do?

A

poris finger like endings to pick up any unwanted fluid in the one-way drainage system

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99
Q

where are major arteries located?

A

situated to avoid damage

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100
Q

what are fenestrated capillaries?

A

leaky

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101
Q

what are continuous capillaries?

A

contolled/tight

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102
Q

what are the 3 pathways for drainage?

A

deep veins
superficail veins
lymphatics

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103
Q

what is the pointed end of the heart called?

A

the apex

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104
Q

what is the braod end of the heart called?

A

the base

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105
Q

where does the base of the heart sit?

A

between the 2nd and 3rd ribs

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106
Q

where odes the apex of the heart sit?

A

between the 5th and 6th ribs

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107
Q

what is the heart sitting like?

A

rotated to the left and tilted posteriorly

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108
Q

how many chambers are there in the heart?

A

4

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109
Q

what is the atrium?

A

the recieveing chamber that drains blood into the ventricle

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110
Q

what is a ventricle?

A

recieves blood from the atrium and pumps it back out of the heart to the capillary networks

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111
Q

what is the biggest artery of the heart?

A

the aorta

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112
Q

what feeds the right atrium?

A

superior vena cava
inferior vena cava
coronbary sinus

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113
Q

what feeds the left atrium?

A

4 pulmonary veins

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114
Q

what are the three layers of the heart?

A

endocardium
myocardium
epicardium

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115
Q

wht does endo mean?

A

within

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116
Q

what does myo mean?

A

muscle

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117
Q

what does epi mean?

A

ontop

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118
Q

what does cardium mean?

A

heart

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119
Q

what is the pericardium?

A

a sac that the heart sits in around the heart that protects the heart and keeps the heart lubricated while pumping

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120
Q

how much thicker is the myocardium in the left side of the heart compared to the right side?

A

3 times thicker

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121
Q

why is the myocardium thicker in the left side of the heart?

A

because it has to pump the blood further around the body than the pulmonary system

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122
Q

what is the epicardium fused to?

A

the pericardium

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123
Q

how many valves are in the heart?

A

4

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124
Q

what are the 2 names of the valves?

A

atrioventricular
semilunar

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125
Q

what are atrioventricular valves?

A

stops the backflow of blood when the heart muscles contract and the pressure increases

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126
Q

what is the right AV valve called?

A

tricuspid

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127
Q

what is the left AV valve called?

A

bicuspid

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128
Q

what is diastole?

A

the filling phase where the chambers fill with blood and the AV valves are open

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129
Q

what is systole?

A

the contractile phase and the AV valves are pushed shut and the pressure increases again and the blood is pumped out the semilunar valves

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130
Q

what are semilunar valves?

A

prevents blood from coming back into the ventricles and stops the back flow

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131
Q

what is the right semilunar valve called?

A

the pulmonary valve

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132
Q

what is the left semilunar valve called?

A

aortic valve

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133
Q

what are papillary muscles?

A

tenderous strands that attach to the free edge that stops the leaflets from folding back into the atrium and allowing backflow

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134
Q

what valves are papillary muscles on?

A

AV valves

135
Q

why dont semilunar valves have papillary muscles?

A

because there is alot less pressure

136
Q

what does the right coronary artery run into?

A

it runs down over the pericardium to the ventricle wall

137
Q

what does the left coronary artery run into?

A

branches into 2 big arteries called the circumflex artery and the interventricular artery

138
Q

where does the hearts drainage go?

A

through the cardiac veins

139
Q

where does the small cardiac vein take blood from?

A

the right coronary artery

140
Q

what is the great cardiac vein drain from?

A

the left coronary vein

141
Q

what does the coronary sinus drain into?

A

drains the venous blood back into the heart

142
Q

what does TS mean?

A

transverse section

143
Q

what does LS mean?

A

longitudinal section

144
Q

what connects the cardiac muscle cells with neighbouring cells?

A

intercalated discs

145
Q

what is the difference between the cardiac muscle cell and skeletal muscle cell?

A

cardiac has a central nucleus whereas skeletal has a peripheral nucleus

146
Q

what does cardiac muscle have alot of?

A

mitochondria

147
Q

what are adhesive belts?

A

link actin of one cell to the actin in another cell and can casue the function from one cell to the next

148
Q

what are desmosomes?

A

link cytokeratin of one cell to the cytokeratin in another cell which fuses the 2 together

149
Q

what is a gap junction?

A

also known as a communication junction which uses electrochemical communication

150
Q

what are adhesive belts, desmosomes and gap junctions?

A

intercalated discs

151
Q

what does the thoratic artery split into?

A

2 common ilia arterys

152
Q

what do ilia arteries run to?

A

femoral arteries?

153
Q

what do femoral arteries lead to?

A

popliteal arteries

154
Q

where are popliteal arteries located?

A

posterior to the knee cap

155
Q

what does the popliteal artery lead to?

A

posterior tibial artery

156
Q

what supplies the foot with blood?

A

planar arch

157
Q

where does the venous drainage start in the feet?

A

plantar venous arch

158
Q

where does the plantar venous arch lead to?

A

the posterior tibial veins

159
Q

where does the femoral vein lead to?

A

external iliac vein

159
Q

where does the posterior venous vein lead to?

A

femoral vein

160
Q

where does the external iliac vein lead to?

A

the common iliac vein

161
Q

where does the common iliac vein lead to?

A

these lead to the inferior vena cava

162
Q

what are the 3 layers of the blood vessels?

A

tunica intima
tunica media
tunica adventia

162
Q

what is the tunica intima?

A

inner most layer of the blood vessels
simple squamous epithelium which lines the lumen
its a very thin layer which has a internal elastic lamina which is well developed in the arteries

163
Q

what is the tunica media?

A

is a smooth muscle dense layer which is involuntary and is surrounded by a variety of connective tissue
this is the thickest layer

164
Q

what is the tunica adventia?

A

is loose FCT that is high in collagen and variable amount of elastin

164
Q

what are benefits of the aorta having more elastin?

A

dampens the pulsarity of systolic and diastolic pressure of blood

164
Q

what are muscular arterys?

A

less elatin than muscle tissue

165
Q

what are venules?

A

the smallest veins at the base of the capillaries which is the start of collecting (drainage) system

166
Q

what are arterioles?

A

the smallest arteries that drans into the capillaries
they are important for the resistance vessels of the circulation determine blood pressure

167
Q

why are there valves in the veins?

A

to stop the backflow in the veins and blood falling back down due to gravity

167
Q

what are the functions of the veins?

A

low pressure
large volume transport
one-way flow (unidirectional)
capacitance vessels

168
Q

which layer is thinner in veins compared to arteries?

A

tunica media

168
Q

what is the thickest layer of the veins?

A

tunica adventitia

169
Q

what is the site of exchange between the blood and tissues?

A

capillaries

169
Q

what are RBCs?

A

red blood cells

169
Q

what are varicase veins?

A

diluted walls that makes the valves leaky so they dont function correctly

169
Q

what allows RBCs to travel in single file?

A

the capillary lumen is just bigger than the RBCs

169
Q

how do RBCs travel through the capillaries?

A

slow, smooth and single file

169
Q

what is the structure of the capillaries?

A

thin wall with a large cross-sectional area

170
Q

what is a vascular shunt?

A

the straight line from the arterioles to the venules controlled by sphincters
they bypass the capillary bed

170
Q

what is the benefits of the single file blood flow through the capillaries?

A

transfers oxygen easier as the haemoglobin is closer to the lumen capillary wall

170
Q

what junctions are usesd for oxygen exchange?

A

intercellular junctions

171
Q

what are the sphincters made of?

A

smooth muscle to control the flow rate

171
Q

what are continuous capillaries?

A

mainly one epithelia cell that runs the perimeter of the lumen
the basal lamina is a connective tissue that wraps the outside of the continuous capillary made up of extracellular matrix

171
Q

what are the 3 types of capillaries?

A

continuous
fenestrated
sinusodial

171
Q

what are fenestrated capillaries?

A

has physical openings in the epithelia cell wall making easier for fluids to travel to the basal lamina which leads to the capillary network being leaky

172
Q

structure of lymphatic vessels?

A

large, blind ending capillaries

172
Q

what are lacteals?

A

drain fat lymph into the collecting vessel

173
Q

what are sinusidial capillaries?

A

wider in diameter so doesnt need RBCs travelling in a single file
the basement menbrane is incomplete so fluid is leaving the capillary, not the RBCs themselves
very leaky

174
Q

what is a cisterna chyli?

A

what lacteals drain into these and collect these lacteals

175
Q

what is the thoratic duct?

A

a large lymphatic cannel that the small lymphatic collecting vessels lead to

176
Q

what does the lymphatic system do with capillarys?

A

drain the fluid that are leaking out of the capillaries and takes it to the lymph node to analyse the fluid for pathogens

177
Q

what does the thoratic duct lead into?

A

the left subclavian vein

178
Q

where does the right lymphatic system lead into?

A

the right subclavian vein

179
Q

where is the cervical node located?

A

in the neck

179
Q

where is the axillory nodes located?

A

the armpits

180
Q

where are the inguinal node located?

A

the groin

181
Q

where does the arterial blood flow to?

A

away from the heart

182
Q

where does the venous blood flow to?

A

towards the heart

183
Q

does the side of the heat work in parrallel?

A

yessir

184
Q

which chambers of the hearts work together?

A

the atriums work together and the ventricles work together

185
Q

why is the aorta large?

A

because it has to travel further

186
Q

what chambers contract first?

A

the atrias

187
Q

what chambers contract second?

A

the ventricles

188
Q

what happens when the atrium contracts?

A

feeding the maximum amount of blood to fill the ventricles after passive refilling

189
Q

what happens when the atrium relaxes?

A

the valves close

190
Q

what happens when the ventricles contract?

A

builds up pressure to blow the exit valves open and maximizes the blood flow to push the blood around the body

191
Q

what are the 2 exit valves?

A

aortic
pulmonary

192
Q

what is actin?

A

a thin filament

193
Q

what is myosin?

A

thick filaments

194
Q

what are bundles of actin and myosin called?

A

myofibrils

195
Q

what is the cellular mechanism of cardiac contraction?

A

Ca+ levels increase and more Ca+ is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
myosin binds to the actin to form cross-bridges
myosin pulls on actin to shorten the sarcomere and generate force

196
Q

what activates the contractions of the heart?

A

calcium

197
Q

how many myocytes become activated during each heart beat?

A

all of them

198
Q

what produces a greater force in the heart?

A

more cross-bridges

199
Q

how many myocytes relax on each beat?

A

all of them

200
Q

what are the 2 features of diastole?

A

relaxation
falling pressure

200
Q

what are 2 features of systole?

A

contraction
rising pressure

201
Q

what happens when the atrial diastole begin?

A

ventricle systole

202
Q

when does the heart beat cycle start?

A

just before the atrial systole

202
Q

what period is longer diastole or systole?

A

diastole

202
Q

what is the lowest point on the trace?

A

diastolic pressure

202
Q

what generates the beating sound within the heart?

A

the valves closing

202
Q

what is the highest point on a trace?

A

systolic pressure

202
Q

what pressure is higher, pulmonary or systemic?

A

systemic

203
Q

what does isovolumetric mean?

A

the volume isnt changing

203
Q

what is the difference between the highest and lowest point of a trace called?

A

pulse pressure

203
Q

what si the mean pressure?

A

the average pressure across thefull cycle

204
Q

what is hypertension?

A

high blood pressure

204
Q

what is hypotension?

A

low blood pressure

205
Q

what do contractile cells look like?

A

strippy as it has alot of actin and myosin

205
Q

what percentage of the heart is electrical cells?

A

1%

205
Q

what are the 2 populations of cells within the heart?

A

contractile cells
electrical cells

205
Q

what do electrical cells do?

A

they are interconnected but dont contract but send signals
they are conducting cells such as purkinje cells and AV nodal cells

205
Q

what do electrical cells look like?

A

pale appearance

205
Q

what percentage of the heart cells is contractile?

A

99%

206
Q

where does depolarisation start?

A

sinoatrial node (SAN)

207
Q

what does the SAN do?

A

generates an electrical signal also known as action potentials
the electrical signal is faster than the nerves
when these reach the muscle cells it causes a contraction

208
Q

what connects the cardiac cells?

A

intercalated disks

209
Q

what does the interatrial bundles do?

A

activates the left atrium at the same time as the AV node is activating the right atrium

209
Q

what is the electrocardiogram (ECG) do?

A

puts leads that attach to the surface of the skin that uses to detect changes in the cell voltages

209
Q

what is quiescence?

A

quiet or nothing is happening at the time

209
Q

what does a p wave indicate?

A

the atrium polarisation

209
Q

what do the gaps in the intercalated disks do?

A

the small holes allow charged particles to move between the cells

209
Q

what is a functional syncytium?

A

all the cardiac cells behaving as one

209
Q

why is the AV node slow and quiet?

A

allows the atrium to finish there job before the ventricles begin contracting

210
Q

what is a T wave?

A

the repolarisation of the ventricles

210
Q

what happens during the QRS complex?

A

atrium repolarising and ventricular polarisation

211
Q

what does a flat line in the ECG mean?

A

there is no change

211
Q

where is the mean blood pressure on the chart?

A

just below the middle of the chart

211
Q

what does MAP mean?

A

mean arterial pressure

211
Q

what is delta p mean?

A

difference in pressure

211
Q

is the blood pressure high or low in the aterial system?

A

high

211
Q

is the blood pressure high or low in the venous system?

A

low

212
Q

how do we calculate flow?

A

pressure difference / resistance

212
Q

what is haemodynamic?

A

how blood flows in a single vessel

213
Q

how do we calculate the MAP?

A

flow * resistance

213
Q

what does the baroreceptors do?

A

sends signals to the bcardiac centers of the brain stem

213
Q

how do we calculate CO?

A

SV * HR

213
Q

how does the brake neural output work?

A

goes through the vagus nerve straight to the (SA) node to decrease heart rate

213
Q

what happens when the blood flows into the arteries?

A

fills arteries
increases arterial blood volume
raises arterial pressure

213
Q

what is TPR?

A

total peripheral resistance

213
Q

what does high pressure lead to?

A

full control of the flow

213
Q

how does the accelerator neural output work?

A

goes through the sympathetic trunk ganglion to the SA node and the ventricular muscle to increase how hard it pumps

213
Q

what happens when the blood flows out of the arteries?

A

drains arteries
decreases arterial blood volume
lowers arterial pressure

213
Q

another way to calculate the MAP?

A

CO * TPR

213
Q

what is CO?

A

cardiac output

213
Q

what is HR?

A

heart rate (beats per minuite)

213
Q

what increases the blood flow to during exercise?

A

muscles
heart
skin

213
Q

what is SV?

A

stroke volume

213
Q

what allows the required blood to enter the different areas of the body?

A

taps

213
Q

how much blood goes to the organs?

A

the same aount that comes out of the organs

214
Q

what does CO depend on?

A

depend on what sort of organism you are
exercise can increase the CO by increasing the HR (beats per minute)

214
Q

what are the 2 baroreceptors?

A

aortic arch and the carotid sinus

214
Q

how does afferent input of the brainstem from the CO done?

A

baroreceptors which are blood pressure sensors

214
Q

what decreases the blood flow to during exercise?

A

GI tract
kidneys

214
Q

when we exercise what happens to the distribution of oxygenated blood to the organs that arent used in the exercise?

A

they decrease the blood flow to these organs

214
Q

what remains the same blood flow during exercise?

A

brain

214
Q

what happens to the systemic circulation during exercise?

A

increased CO
constant MAP
decreased TPR

215
Q

what does bigger pipes equal?

A

bigger flow

216
Q

what does decreasing the resistance do?

A

increases the flow

217
Q

what are the precapillary sphincters made of?

A

smooth muscle cells

218
Q

what does the precapillary sphincters do?

A

decide the amount of blood that is allowed to enter the arterioles

219
Q

what does a small radius mean?

A

an increase in resistance and a decrease in flow which is done by the taps

220
Q

what does blood distribution consist of?

A

the diameter of the lumen

221
Q

what changes the radius of the lumen?

A

the smooth muscle cells

222
Q

what does a small change in the arteriole size lead to?

A

a big change in blood flow

223
Q

what blood vessel holds the most blood?

A

veins

224
Q

what is excess blood called?

A

the reserve

225
Q

where is the reserve blood stored?

A

in the venous circulation

226
Q

what does our venous system have when is has a high volume?

A

low pressure system

227
Q

why can veins hold the reserve volume of blood?

A

because the tunica media is alot thinner than that of the arteries

228
Q

what is the ability to stretch and hold more storage called?

A

compliance

229
Q

what is compliance?

A

a vessel allows deformation in response to an applied force

230
Q

how do we calculate compliance?

A

delta V / delta P

231
Q

why do arteries have less compliance than veins?

A

because they have a thicker tunica media

232
Q

what does vasoconstricting our veins do?

A

if blood pressure is low then we can vasoconstruct to move the reserve blood into the blood circuit to maintain arterial pressure

233
Q

what is venous pulling?

A

when we are standing and the blood is drawn to the feet due to gravity

234
Q

what tone when talking about veins muscles?

A

the wrapping of veins with muscles to stop the blood from back flowing down the legs towards the feet again

235
Q

what happens as we increase the venous return to the heart?

A

we increase the stroke output which increases cardiac output

236
Q

where does blood transport O2, nutrients and water to?

A

our tissues

237
Q

where does blood transport CO2 and waste products to?

A

lungs and the kidneys

238
Q

how can blood reduce body heat?

A

by getting closer to the skin which is why we go pink when we are hot

239
Q

what are the immune functions of blood?

A

white blood cells and immunoglobins to fight infections

240
Q

how does the blood coagulate and why?

A

uses platelets and coagulation factors to stop the bleeding

241
Q

what is plasma made of?

A

plasma proteins, water and formed elements

242
Q

what is 50/50 of the blood made of?

A

plasma and RBCs

243
Q

what do plasma proteins do?

A

maintain osmotic pressure
immune response
coagulation factors
enzymes

244
Q

what holds the heat in the blood?

A

the water that is in the plasma

245
Q

what are the formed elements made out of?

A

plateletes
white blood cells
red blood cells

246
Q

what do white blood cells do?

A

seek and destroy invading pathogens

247
Q

what is haematopoiesis?

A

the formation of red blood cells which originates in the red marrow which has red stem cells

248
Q

what are hemocytoblasts?

A

another work for red stem cells

249
Q

what are platelets?

A

parts of cells from a destroyed megakaryocytes

250
Q

do RBCs have a nucleus?

A

no

251
Q

why dont RBCs have a nucleus?

A

to fit more haemoglobin into the cell

252
Q

what is erythropoietin?

A

helps the formation of RBCs

253
Q

why is RBCs biconcave disc shape?

A

has a large surface area to volume ratio which allows for efficient diffusion of gasses
Its flexible for movement to move throgh narrow capillaries

254
Q

what is a third of the RBCs mass?

A

haemoglobin

255
Q

what part of the haem binds to the oxygen?

A

the iron binds to the oxygen

256
Q

how many haem units does 1 haemoglobin have?

A

4

257
Q

how many oxygens can bind to a haemoglobin at once?

A

4

258
Q

what is the fraction of the blood occupied by RBCs called?

A

haematrcrit or ‘packed cell volume’ (PCV)

258
Q

what does a centrifuge do?

A

spins the blood and seperates it into its main components

258
Q

how can we measure the cell concentration?

A

with a centrifuge

259
Q

what can haemoglobin concetration tell us?

A

how much O2 can be carried in the blood

259
Q

what can cause anaemia?

A

Fe deficiency in a diet

259
Q

what does low haemoglobin lead to?

A

anaemia

259
Q

what is anaemia?

A

blood carries less O2 which reduces amount of delivery to tissues and reduces exercise ability

260
Q

what stimulates the production of RBCs?

A

erythropoietin

260
Q

what senses the low levels of O2?

A

kidneys

260
Q

what does EPO do?

A

tells the red marrow to make more RBCs

260
Q

what is released when there are low levels of oxygen?

A

EPO

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