03. 1915-40 - Women and work, social change Flashcards
What economic opportunities did WWI bring for women?
From 1917, women took the place of men who were fighting e.g. working in factories.
How many women worked in industry between 1917 and 1918?
1 million
How many women served in the US Navy during the war?
11,000 (but as nurses, clerical workers, telephone operators)
Why did the war not change much for married women?
While some married women did take up jobs (a change), they were expected to leave those jobs when the men returned from war.
This was widely accepted.
In basic terms, how did the 1920s economic boom benefit women?
It created more jobs for unmarried women.
Cheaper domestic appliances (fridges, vacuum cleaners) made home life easier for married women (although this often meant they just invested more time with their children).
What was the importance of credit?
During the 1920s, Americans were more able to buy on credit and thus (some) working class families could purchase, refrigerators etc.
How far did the % of working class married women increase during the 1920s?
By a little: 23% to 29%
How many more women entered the work force in the 1920s?
About 2 million
Were women equally paid in the 1920s?
No - they were paid less for the same work
Did women unionise in the interwar period?
Yes, many did. Union membership great from 260,000 to 800,000 during the 1930s.
In other words, union membership trebled.
Were women’s unions diverse?
No - they were exclusively white
In 1936, following the Depression, what did a 1936 Gallup Poll reveal?
82% of Americans were opposed to women working
In short, what impact did the Depression have on women’s economic opportunities?
In the face of massive male unemployment, the apparent expansion of opportunities for women quickly receded.
What did 26 states do during the 1930s relating to women at work?
Introduced laws banning married women from working*
*although only one state (Louisiana) actually passed the law, and it was ruled unconstitutional
How did the Depression change expectations around work?
The expectation became that women - even unmarried women - should give up their jobs to make way for men.
What was the basic idea of the New Deal?
To stimulate the American economy and get America working again
Was the New Deal directed towards women?
Not really – it was mostly focused on men, although women did gain, generally indirectly
How did the Social Security Act (1935) help women?
It provided some welfare benefits for poor families, thus helping some married women.
How did Aid to Dependent Children (1935) help women?
It gave money to women with young families who could not work and where there was no male breadwinner.
These benefits mostly went to white women – and the application process was humiliating.
How did the Fair Labor Standards Act (1938) help women?
It set minimum wage levels (although women were still paid less than men)
How did male and female salaries in teaching compare in the 1930s?
Men were paid 20% more
How much support did the New Deal provide for non-white women?
Even less than for white women – those in rural areas particularly suffered as New Deal policies sought to suppress agricultural production
Who was the first woman to be elected to the House of Representatives in 1916?
Jeanette Rankin
When was Jeanette Rankin elected to the House of Representatives?
In 1916
Why were so few women involved in politics in the early 20th century?
It was considered too dishonest and disreputable a profession for women
Who did the Nineteenth Amendment give the right to vote?
Women citizens over the age of 21
How enthusiastically was the Nineteenth Amendment greeted by women?
Few women seemed to care.
Black women in the South struggled to vote. Working class women generally had to focus on survival, not politics.
How many women had entered national politics by 1939?
Nine
Who became the first woman judge on the US Circuit of Appeals?
Florence Allen
Why was Florence Allen significant?
She became the first woman judge on the US Circuit of Appeals
Was was Mary McLeod Williams significant?
She became the first black woman to enter the government as Director of Negro Affairs
Who became the first black woman to enter government?
Mary McLeod Williams
Why was Frances Perkins significant?
She was the first female member of the Cabinet
What role did Frances Perkins hold?
Secretary of Labor (from 1933 to 1945)
Did Frances Perkins do much for women while in office?
While she promoted social reform, she did little to directly promote increased opportunities for women
Who was the role model for women in the 1930s?
Eleanor Roosevelt, the First Lady
Why was Eleanor Roosevelt a role model?
She combined her role of wife and mother with active support for women’s rights (and other causes e.g. anti-lynching)
Why was so little political change achieved in the interwar period?
Women were divided over how to best use the vote.
Broadly, how was the women’s movement divided in the interwar period?
Some wanted to protect and prioritise the sanctity of home
Some feminist groups wanted equal rights (including an Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution)
Some opposed the ERA as they thought in would reduce their protection (e.g. in a work place where their physical differences mattered)
Right wing anti-feminist groups opposed equal rights and campaigned against the feminist movement
What did Jane Addams campaign for during the interwar period?
To regulate working hours and conditions for women - and abolish child labour
What did Mary Talbert campaign for during the interwar period?
A campaign to prevent lynching
(The KKK had re-emerged following A Birth of a Nation)
What did the Women’s Bureau, established in 1920 as part of the Dept. of Labour, achieve during this period?
Little.
It focused on improving working conditions which met with resistance from some employers and male unions.
What did the Shepherd-Towner Act (1921) provide?
Funds for training for midwives to reduce infant mortality
How effective was the Shepherd-Towner Act (1921)?
Not very - funding was stopped in 1929.
The American Medical Association, which saw it as socialist, lobbied hard against it.
Why was legislation to limit women’s working days to 8 hours ineffective?
It was ruled as unconstitutional in 1922.
What was a ‘flapper’?
A young upper-middle class woman who wore their hair and clothes short and engaged in behaviour that outrage their mothers (and fathers).
How widespread were flappers?
Not very. It was limited to a relatively small, privileged elite.
How enduring was the world imagined by Scott Fitzgerald?
Transitory – the changes his novels (e.g. The Great Gatsby) describe were not widespread or enduring.
How did educational opportunities evolve during the interwar period?
The number of women graduates continued to grow, and so did women entering research and achieving doctorates.
However, there remained strong resistance to women entering the professions, especially medicine and law.
What did Martha Thomas, an African American woman, found in 1921?
The Bryn Mawr Summer School for working-class women
