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Biology > 02. Chemical and cellular basis of life > Flashcards

02. Chemical and cellular basis of life Flashcards

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1
Q

How many elements are recognized in nature?

A

92 elements

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2
Q

How many elements are essential for human life?

A

~25 elements

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3
Q

How many elements are essential for plant life?

A

~17 elements

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4
Q

Name the four main elements in living matter

A
  • Oxygen
  • Carbon
  • Hydrogen
  • Nytrogen

Makes up 96% of living matter

Acronym : CHON

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5
Q

Which elements make up the most of remaining 4% of living matter (apart from C, H, O and N)?

A
  • Calcium (Ca)
  • Phosphorus (P)
  • Potassium (K)
  • Sulphur / Sulfur (S)
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6
Q

Which elements are contained in minute amounts in living matter?

A
  • Sodium (Na)
  • Chlorine (Cl)
  • Magnesium (Mg)
  • Boron (B)
  • Cobalt (Co)
  • Copper (Cu)
  • Chromium (Cr)
  • Fluorine (F)
  • Iodine (I)
  • Iron (Fe)
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7
Q

Give two reasons on why water is important for life

A
  1. Vital chemical constituent of living cell
  2. Provides a biological medium for all organisms
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8
Q

What are the characteristics of water molecule?

A

Small, polar and angular

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9
Q

What’s known as polarity?

A

An uneven charge distribution within a molecule

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10
Q

What’s a hydrogen bond in water?

A

Weak attractions between the slightly polar hydrogen atom of one molecule and the slightly polar oxygen atom of adjacent water molecule

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11
Q

What’s the bond angle of a water molecule?

A

104.5°

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12
Q

What type of bond plays major role in maintaining all the properties of water?

A

Hydrogen bonds (H-O)

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13
Q

What are the four major properties of water to maintain life on earth?

A
  1. Cohesive behavior
  2. Ability to moderate temperature
  3. Expansion upon freezing
  4. Versatility as a solvent
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14
Q

What’s known as cohesion in water molecules?

A

Attraction between water molecules due to hydrogen bonding

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15
Q

What’s known as adhesion in water molecules?

A

Attractions between water molecules and other substances

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16
Q

Give an example of using cohesion for life functions

A

Water and dissolved substances such as minerals are transported as a continuous column through xylem against gravity.

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17
Q

Give an example of using adhesion for life functions

A

Adhesion between water molecules and cell walls helps in conduction of water and dissolved materials.

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18
Q

Why does water have a high surface tension?

A

Due to cohesion between water molecules

In an aquatic system, upper surface water molecules are attracted by lower surface molecules and it forms a water film.

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19
Q

How does water’s ability to moderate temperature can help living organisms?

A
  • Due to the high specific heat, water will function as a thermal buffer in living systems and aquatic bodies during temperature fluctuations.
  • Due to the high heat of vaporization, with a minimum loss of water an organism can release much heat energy.
  • Evaporation of sweat form human skin help to maintain body temperature at a constant level.
  • Transpiration in plants helps to cool the plant body surface and prevent from becoming too warm in the sunlight.
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20
Q

At which temperature does water has the maximum density?

A

4°C

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21
Q

Water is good as a solvent due to its which characteristic?

A

Polarity

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22
Q

Which molecules and compounds can dissolve in water?

A
  • Polor molecules (Glucose)
  • Ionic compounds (NaCl)
  • Molecules with both polar and ionic regions (lysozymes)
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23
Q

What are the main organic compounds of organisms?

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Proteins
  • Nucleic acids
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24
Q

Which factor is essential for solubility of the solutes?

A

Polarity

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25
Q

What’s the most abundant group of organic compounds?

A

Carbohydrates

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26
Q

What’s the elemental composition of carbohydrates?

A
  • Carbon (C)
  • Hydrogen (H)
  • Oxygen (O)

Acronym : CHO

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27
Q

What’s the general formula of carbohydrates?

A

Cx(H2O)y

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28
Q

Name the three major groups of carbohydrates

A
  • Monosaccharides
  • Disaccharides
  • Polysaccharides
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29
Q

Which corbohydrates are considered as sugars?

A

Monosaccharides and disaccharides

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30
Q

What’s simplest form of carbohydrates?

A

Monosaccharides

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31
Q

What’s the molecular formula of monosaccharides?

A

(CH2O)n

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32
Q

How many C atoms can be a part of a monosaccharide?

A

3-7

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33
Q

What are some characteristics of monosaccharides?

A
  • Reducing sugars
  • Water soluble
  • Occur in crystalline form
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34
Q

Monosaccharides with 3 carbon atoms are names as?

A

3C - Triose

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35
Q

Give an example for triose sugars

A

Glyceraldehydes

(Phosphoglyceraldehyde is a derivative of triose)

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36
Q

Give an example for a monosaccharide with 4 carbon atoms

A

4C - Tetroses

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37
Q

Give an example for a monosaccharide with 5 carbon atoms

A

5C - Pentoses

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38
Q

Give an example for a monosaccharide with 6 carbon atoms

A

6C - Hexoses

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39
Q

Phosphoglyceraldehyde is a derivative of which type of monosaccharide?

A

Triose (Glyceraldehydes)

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40
Q

Give an example for a tetrose

A

Erythrose (rare in nature)

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41
Q

Give examples for monosaccharides related to pentose

A
  • Ribose
  • Deoxyribose
  • Ribulose (RUBP)
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42
Q

RUBP is a derivative of which monosaccharide?

A

Ribulose

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43
Q

Give examples for hexoses

A
  • Glucose
  • Fructose
  • Galactose
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44
Q

What’s a carbonyl group?

A

A carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen atom
A C=O bond

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45
Q

What are sugar types which are classified according to the type of carbonyl group?

A

Aldo - Alodoses
Keto - Ketoses

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46
Q

Keto and Aldo groups are types of which group?

A

Corbonyl C=O

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47
Q

What’s an aldehyde group?

A

A corbonyl group with the C atom attached to a H atom

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48
Q

What’s a keto group?

A

A carbonyl group in which the C atom is bonded to C atoms (not H)

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49
Q

Give some examples for sugars (monosaccharides*) which belong to aldoses

A
  • Glucose
  • Galactose
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50
Q

Give some examples for sugars (monosaccharides*) which belong to ketoses

A

Fructose

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51
Q

Some monosaccharides are in which form when in an aqueous media?

A

Ring form

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52
Q

How are disaccharides formed?

A

By joining two monosaccharides by a glycosidic bond

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53
Q

What’s a glycosidic bond?

A

Glycosidic bonds are covalent bonds that connect a sugar molecule to another molecule, such as another sugar or a non-sugar compound, through the linkage of their respective hydroxyl groups.

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54
Q

How’s a glycosidic bond is formed?

A

It’s formed by removal of a water molecule from two adjacent monosaccharides by a condensation reaction (dehydration synthesis).

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55
Q

Which disaccharide is formed by the condensation of two glucose molecules?

A

Maltose

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56
Q

Which disaccharide is formed by the condensation of glucose and fructose molecules?

A

Sucrose

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57
Q

Which disaccharide is formed by the condensation of glucose and galactose molecules?

A

Lactose

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58
Q

What are reducing sugars?

A

Reducing sugars are groups of sugars which have a free aldehyde group or a keto group, which can reduce other compounds.

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59
Q

Give examples for reducing sugars

A
  • Glucose
  • Fructose
  • Galactose
  • Maltose
  • Lactose

(basically all the example that were in grade 10 text book except for sucrose)

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60
Q

Give an example for a non-reducing sugar

A

Sucrose

sucrose doesn’t have a free aldo/keto group

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61
Q

Which type of carbohydrates are macromolecules and biopolymers?

A

Polysaccharides

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62
Q

What are the characteristics of polysaccharides?

A
  • Non-crystalline
  • Water insoluble
  • Not considered as sugars
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63
Q

What are the functions of polysaccharides in living organisms?

A
  • Functioning as a storage component
  • Contributing to the structure of living organisms
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64
Q

Polysaccharides which facilitate to the structure of living organisms are known as?

A

Structural polysaccharides

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65
Q

Polysaccharides which acts as a storage component are known as?

A

Storage polysaccharides

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66
Q

Name few storage polysaccharides

A

Starch, Glycogen

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67
Q

Name structural polysaccharides

A

Cellulose, Hemicellulose, Pectin

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68
Q

What are the two forms of polysaccharides based on their structure/ architecture?

A
  • Linear forms
  • Branched forms
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69
Q

Give some examples for linear forms of polysaccharides

A

Cellulose, Amylose

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70
Q

Give some examples for Branched forms of polysaccharides

A

Glycogen, Amylopectin, Hemicellulose

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71
Q

What’s the monomer of starch?

A

Glucose

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72
Q

What’s the monomer of glycogen?

A

Glucose

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73
Q

What’s the monomer of cellulose?

A

Glucose

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74
Q

What’s the monomer of inuline?

A

Fructose

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75
Q

What’s the monomer of pectin?

A

Galacturonic acid

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76
Q

What’s the monomer of hemicellulose?

A

Pentose and hexoses

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77
Q

What’s chitin?

A

It’s a nitrogen containing polysaccharide

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78
Q

What’s the monomer of chitin?

A

Glucosamine

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79
Q

What’s the function of starch?

A

Storage of foods in plants

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80
Q

What’s the function of glycogen?

A

Storage of food in animals and fungi

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81
Q

What’s the function of cellulose?

A

Component of cell wall

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82
Q

What’s the function of inuline?

A

Food storage in tubers of dhalia

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83
Q

What’s the function of pectin?

A

Component of middle lamella of plant cell wall

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84
Q

What’s the function of hemicellulose?

A

Component of plant cell wall

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85
Q

What’s the function of chitin?

A

Component of fungal cell walls and exoskeleton of arthropods

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86
Q

Name polysaccharides which are responsible for the structure of plant cells

A

Cellulose, Hemicellulose, Pectin

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87
Q

What are the functions of monosaccharides?

A
  • Energy source
  • Building blocks of disaccharides and polysaccharides
  • Components of nucleotides
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88
Q

What are the functions of disaccharides?

A
  • Storage sugar in milk - Lactose
  • Translocation in phloem - Sucrose
  • Storage sugar in sugarcane - Sucrose
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89
Q

Which carbohydrate is responsible for food storage in milk?

A

Lactose

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90
Q

Which carbohydrate is associated with translocation in phloem?

A

Sucrose

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91
Q

Which carbohydrate is associated with storage of food in sugarcane?

A

Sucrose

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92
Q

Name some functions of storage polysaccharides

A
  • Storing glucose as energy source in plants and chlorophytes - Starch
  • Storing glucose as energy source in plants and fungi - Glycogen
  • Storing fructose as energy source in Dhalia tubers - Inuline
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93
Q

What are the functions of structural polysaccharides?

A
  • Cellulose in the cell walls of plants and chlorophytes
  • Hemicellulose in cell walls of plants
  • Pectin in the middle lamella of plant tissues
  • Chitin in cell walls of fungi and in exoskeleton of arthropods
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94
Q

What are the characteristics of lipids?

A
  • Diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
  • Large biological mecules but not considered as polymers or macromolecules
  • Consist of C, H, O and H:O ratio is not 2:1. Comparatively more H than O are present
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95
Q

Give examples for biologically important types of lipids

A

Fats, Phospholipids and Steroids

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96
Q

What are the components of fat?

A

Glycerol and fatty acids

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97
Q

Which chemical group does glycerol belong to?

A

Alcohol

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98
Q

Explain the structure of a glycerol molecule

A

Glycerol has 3 carbon atoms where each of them is bonded to a hydroxyl group

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99
Q

Explain the structure of fatty acids

A

Fatty acids are hydrocarbon chains with long carbon skeleton with a carboxyl group at its one terminal

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100
Q

How many carbon atoms are in a fatty acid molecule?

A

Usually 16-18

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101
Q

By which bond does fatty acid bind to each hydroxyl group of glycerol?

A

Ester bond

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102
Q

What’s the resulting fat molecules are called by the bonding of glycerol and 3 fatty acids?

A

Triacylglycerol (Triglycerides)

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103
Q

Which component contribute to the hydrophobic nature of fats?

A

Non-polar hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids

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104
Q

What are the two types of fats based on the nature of hydrocarbon chains?

A
  • Saturated fats
  • Unsaturated fats
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105
Q

What are saturated fats?

A

Fats which are made up of saturated fatty acids with hydrocarbon chains having no double bonds

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106
Q

Which fats come under saturated fat category?

A

Animal fats

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107
Q

Saturated fats are […] at room temperature

A

Solid

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108
Q

What are unsaturated fats?

A

Fats which are made up of unsaturated fatty acids with hydrocarbon chains having one or more double bonds

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109
Q

Give an example for unsaturated fat

A

Plant oils

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110
Q

Unsaturated fats are mostly […] in room temperature

A

Liquid

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111
Q

What are the two types of unsaturated fats, based on the nature of their double bonds?

A
  • Cis unsaturated fats
  • Trans unsaturated fats
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112
Q

Excess consumption of which fats are contributing to atherosclerosis?

A

Saturated fats and trans unsaturated fats

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113
Q

Phospholipids are major components of which part of the cell?

A

Cell membrane

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114
Q

Phospholipids are composed of?

A

Glycerol, 2 fatty acids, phosphate group + additional polar molecule ie. Choline

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115
Q

Which part gives a negative charge to the phospholipid molecule?

A

Phosphate group

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116
Q

Which part of the phospholipid is hydrophilic?

A

Phosphate group and it’s attachment (head)

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117
Q

Which part of the phospholipid is hydrophobic?

A

Hydrocarbon tails

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118
Q

What are the functions of lipids?

A
  • Food reserve as an energy source
  • Found as components of cell membrane
  • Maintain the fluidity of plasma membrane
  • Act as signaling molecules that travel through body
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119
Q

Which type of lipids are responsible for storing food?

A

Triacylglycerols such as fats and oils

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120
Q

Which types of lipids are responsible for maintaining the fluidity of plasma membrane?

A

Phospholipids and cholesterol

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121
Q

Which lipids are found as a component of cell membrane?

A

Phospholipids and cholesterol

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122
Q

Which type of lipids act as a signaling molecule?

A

Hormones

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123
Q

What’s the monomer of proteins?

A

Amino acids

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124
Q

How many unique amino acids are involved in protein formation?

A

20

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125
Q

What’s the elemental composition of proteins?

A
  • Carbon
  • Hydrogen
  • Oxygen
  • Nitrogen
  • Sulfur

Acronym : CHONS

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126
Q

What’s at the center of the amino acid?

A

An asymmetric carbon atom

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127
Q

Which amino acid does not have an asymmetric carbon atom at the center?

A

Glycine

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128
Q

What are the components of an amino acid?

A

Asymmetric carbon atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom and a variable group (side chain) symbolized by “R”

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129
Q

What’s the R group of glycine?

A

A hydrogen atom

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130
Q

What’s the R group of an amino acid?

A

Side chain (Differs with each amino acid)

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131
Q

What’s the backbone of an amino acid?

A

All the other components except for the R group

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132
Q

Amino acids may have one or more […] and […]

A

Carboxyl groups
Amino groups

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133
Q

Amino groups has […] nature

A

An alkaline

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134
Q

Carboxyl group is […] in nature

A

Acidic

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135
Q

What’s the term refered to molecule which have both alkaline and acidic nature?

A

Amphoteric molecules

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136
Q

Amino acids are […] in nature

A

Amphoteric

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137
Q

What’s the bond which forms between amino acids?

A

Peptide bond (C—N)

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138
Q

Which type of reaction amino acids undergo to create a peptide bond?

A

A condensation reaction (dehydration synthesis)

removes a water molecule

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139
Q

Protein is composed of one or more […] which are composed of […].

A

Polypeptide chains
Amino acids

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140
Q

What are the levels of protein structure?

A
  1. Primary structure
  2. Secondary structure
  3. Tertiary structure
  4. Quaternary structure
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141
Q

What’s known as the primary structure of proteins?

A

The unique sequence of linearly arranged amino acids linked by peptide bonds

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142
Q

What’s known as the secondary structure of proteins?

A

Further folding and coiling of the primary structure of a single polypeptide chain

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143
Q

What’s causes the secondary structure of proteins?

A

Intramolecular hydrogen bonds between the oxygen atoms of the carboxyl groups and hydrogen atoms of the amino groups of the same polypeptide chain backbone

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144
Q

Name the two types of secondary protein structure

A
  • Alpha helix
  • Beta pleated sheet
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145
Q

Give an example for alpha helix type of secondary protein structure

A

Keratin

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146
Q

Give an example for beta pleated sheet type of secondary protein structure

A

Spider’s silk fiber

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147
Q

What’s the tertiary structure of proteins?

A

Usually the secondary polypeptide chain bends and folds extensively forming a precise compact, unique, functional and three-dimensional shape

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148
Q

Interactions between […] of amino acids causes the tertiary structure of proteins

A

Side chain/ R-group

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149
Q

What are the interactions between side chain/ R-group that results in tertiary structure?

A
  • H bonds
  • Disulfide bonds
  • Ionic bonds
  • Hydrophobic interactions and Van Der Waals interactions
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150
Q

Give examples for the tertiary structure of proteins

A
  • Most of the enzymes
  • Myoglobin
  • Albumin
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151
Q

What’s the quaternary structure of proteins?

A

Aggregation of two or more polypeptide chains involve in the formation of one functional protein (tertiary structure)

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152
Q

What’s the term refered to separate chains of the tertiary structure of proteins?

A

Protein subunits

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153
Q

In the tertiary structure of proteins, subunits are held together by […] interactions

A

Inter and intra-molecular

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154
Q

Give examples for the quaternary structure of proteins

A

Hemoglobin, Collagen

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155
Q

What are the protein subunits related to adult human RBCs?

A
  • 2 alpha subunits
  • 2 beta subunits
  • Heme group in each of the alpha & beta subunits
  • Fe ion in the middle of heme groups
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156
Q

What’s known as the denaturation of proteins?

A

The loss of specific three dimensional shape due to the alteration of weak chemical bonds and interactions

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157
Q

What are the agents affecting denaturation of proteins?

A
  1. High temperature and high energy radiation
  2. Strong acids alkaline and high concentration of salts
  3. Heavy metals
  4. Organic solvents and detergents
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158
Q

What’s the function of catalytic proteins?

A

Catalyzing biochemical reactions

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159
Q

Give examples for catalytic proteins

A

Pepsin, amylase

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160
Q

What’s the function of structural proteins?

A
  • Preventing desiccation
  • Providing strength and support
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161
Q

Give examples for structural proteins

A

Keratin, collagen

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162
Q

What’s the function of storage proteins?

A
  • Storage protein in egg
  • Storage protein in milk
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163
Q

Give examples for storage proteins

A

Ovalbumin, Casein

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164
Q

What’s the function of transport proteins?

A
  • Transport O2 and CO2
  • Transport fatty acids
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165
Q

Give examples for transport proteins

A

Hemoglobin, serum albumin

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166
Q

Write a function of proteins which act as a hormone

A

Regulating blood glucose level

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167
Q

Give examples for proteins which function as a hormone

A

Insulin, Glucagon

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168
Q

Write a function of contractile/motor proteins

A

Contraction of muscle fibers

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169
Q

Gve examples for contractile/motor proteins

A

Actin, myosin

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170
Q

What’s the function of defensive proteins?

A

Neutralizing foreign bodies

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171
Q

Give an example for a defensive protein

A

Immunoglobulins (Antibodies)

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172
Q

Give examples for proteins which catalyzes biochemical reactions

A

Pepsin, Amylase

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173
Q

Give an example for a protein which functions to prevent desiccation

A

Keratin

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174
Q

Give an example for a protein which provides support and strength

A

Collagen

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175
Q

Which protein functions as the storage protein in egg?

A

Ovalbumin

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176
Q

Which protein functions as the storage protein in milk?

A

Casein

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177
Q

Which protein is responsible for the transmission of O2 and CO2?

A

Hemoglobin

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178
Q

Which protein is responsible for transporting fatty acids?

A

Serum albumin

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179
Q

Which proteins function to contract muscle fibres?

A

Actin, Myosin

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180
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A

Polymers which exist as polynucleotides made up of monomers called nucleotides

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181
Q

What’s the monomer of nucleic acids?

A

Nucleotide

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182
Q

What’s the elemental composition of nucleotides?

A
  • Carbon
  • Oxygen
  • Hydrogen
  • Nitrogen
  • Phosphorus

Acronym : CHONP

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183
Q

Nucleic acids are […] and […].

A

Biopolymers, macromolecules

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184
Q

Whata re the two types of nucleic acids?

A

DNA and RNA

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185
Q

What does DNA stand for?

A

Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid

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186
Q

What does RNA stand for?

A

Ribonucleic Acid

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187
Q

What are the components of nucleotides?

A
  • Phosphate group
  • Pentose sugar
  • Nitrogenous base
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188
Q

What’s the term used to refer nucleotides without a phosphate group?

A

Nucleoside

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189
Q

Give examples for nucleosides

A

Adenosine, Guanosine

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190
Q

What are the two types of pentose sugar?

A

Deoxy Ribose & Ribose

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191
Q

What’s the difference between deoxyribose and ribose?

A

In deoxyribose, one oxygen atom is less than in ribose

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192
Q

What are the two major groups of nitrogenous bases?

A
  1. Purines
  2. Pyrimidines
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193
Q

What’s the characteristic of purines?

A

Larger in size with two rings

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194
Q

What’s the characteristic of pyrimidines?

A

Smaller in size with a single ring

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195
Q

Give examples for purines

A

Adenine, Guanine

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196
Q

Give examples for pyrimidines

A

Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil

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197
Q

Which component of nucleotide is responsible for it’s acidic nature?

A

Phosphate group

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198
Q

What’s the bond between nucleotides in a polynucleotide chain?

A

Phospho-di-ester bond

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199
Q

How does the phospho-di-ester bond form polynucleotides?

A

By condensation between the -OH of the phosphate of one nucleotide and the -OH attached to the 3rd carbon of pentose sugar of the other nucleotide

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200
Q

What’s the linear polymer of nucleotides?

A

Nucleic acids

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201
Q

The type of the nucleotide is dependent upon it’s which component?

A

By the type of sugar molecule

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202
Q

What are the nitrogenous bases related to DNA?

A

Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)

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203
Q

What are the nitrogenous bases related to RNA?

A

Adenine (A)
Uracil (U)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)

In RNA, there’s Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T)

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204
Q

Which model explains the structure of DNA molecule?

A

Watson and Crick model

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205
Q

Why do DNA molecule have a double helix shape?

A

Because DNA molecules have two anti-parallel polynucleotide chains that spiral around an imaginary axis

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206
Q

Why does the arrangement of DNA molecule is referred to as anti-parallel?

A

Because the two sugar-phosphate backbones run in opposite direction of each other

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207
Q

How the two strands of DNA is held together in it’s double helix shape?

A

By hydrogen bonds between the paired nitrogen bases

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208
Q

What’s the base pair rule in nucleotide base pairing?

A

A purine base, pairs with a specific pyrimidine base

209
Q

What nitrogenous base does adenine (purine) bind to in DNA?

A

Thymine (pyrimidine)

(A-T)
(G-C)

210
Q

Which nitrogenous base does guanine (purine) bind to?

A

Cytosine (pyrimidine)

(A-T)
(G-C)

211
Q

How many hydrogen bonds are there between A-T bond?

A

2

212
Q

How many hydrogen bonds are there between G-C bond?

A

3

213
Q

Name the complementary base pairs in DNA

A

Adenine—Thymine (2 H bonds)
Guanine—Cytosine (3 H bonds)

214
Q

How many base pairs are there in a complete turn of the original double helix structure?

A

10 base pairs

215
Q

What’s the function of DNA?

A
  • Store the genetic information required for protein synthesis
  • Store and transmit genetic information from one generation to the next generation
216
Q

Which nucleic acid is normally a single stranded one?

A

RNA

217
Q

What are the nitrogenous bases which RNA consists of?

A

Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, Cytosine

218
Q

Does complementary base pairing occur in RNA?

A

Complementary base pairing between two RNA molecules or within the same molecule may occur in some.

219
Q

Name the complementary base pairs of RNA

A

Adenine—Uracil (2 H bonds)
Guanine—Cytosine (3 H bonds)

(A-U)
(G-C)

220
Q

How many H bonds are there in A-U bond in RNA?

A

2

221
Q

How many H bonds are there in G-C bond in RNA?

A

3

same as in dna because this is the same bond

222
Q

Which facility is provided by the complementary base pairing in RNA?

A

It facilitates three-dimentional shapes essential for RNA’s functioning

223
Q

What are the three types of RNA present in cells?

A
  1. Messenger RNA
  2. Transfer RNA
  3. Ribosomal RNA
224
Q

What does mRNA stand for?

A

Messenger RNA

225
Q

What does tRNA stand for?

A

Transfer RNA

226
Q

What does rRNA stand for?

A

Ribosomal RNA

227
Q

What’s the least abundant type of RNA?

A

Messenger RNA - mRNA

228
Q

mRNA is a [type of the polymer] molecule

A

Linear

229
Q

What are the functions of mRNA?

A
  • Copies the genetic information stored in DNA molecule as a sequence of nitrogenous bases
  • Transports genetic information from nucleoplasm to the site of protein synthesis (ribosome) through nucleopores
230
Q

What’s the site of protein synthesis?

A

Ribosome

231
Q

What’s the smallest type of RNA molecules?

A

Transfer RNA - tRNA

232
Q

What’s the structure of tRNA?

A
  • Linear
  • Forms three looped structures
233
Q

What’s the function of tRNA?

A

Transportation of amino acids to the site of protein synthesis

234
Q

What’s the most abundant type of RNA?

A

Ribosomal RNA - rRNA

235
Q

rRNA has a [define structure] structure

A

Complex, irregular

236
Q

What’s the function of rRNA?

A

Provides the site where polypeptide chains are assembled

237
Q

What are the differences between DNA and RNA?

A
  1. DNA is a double stranded molecule while RNA is a single stranded molecule
  2. DNA consists of A, T, G and C while U is absent and RNA consists of A, U, G and C while T is absent
  3. Sugar molecule in DNA is deoxyribose, while in RNA it’s ribose
238
Q

Name some nucleotides other than those found in nucleic acids

A
  • ATP
  • NAD+
  • NADP+
  • FAD
239
Q

What does ATP stand for?

A

Adenosine Triphosphate

240
Q

What does NAD+ stand for?

A

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide

241
Q

What does NADP+ stand for?

A

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate

242
Q

What does FAD stand for?

A

Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide

243
Q

What’s the function of ATP?

A

Universal energy carrer

244
Q

What are the functions of NAD+?

A
  • Acts as a coenzyme
  • Act as an electron carrier
  • Functions as an oxidizing agent during respiration
245
Q

What are the functions of NADP+?

A
  • Acts as coenzymes
  • Act as an electron carrier
  • Functions as an oxidizing agent during photosynthesis
246
Q

What are the functions of FAD?

A
  • Act as a coenzyme
  • Act as an electron carrier
  • act as an oxidizing agent
247
Q

Which type of RNA brings amino acids to the site of protein synthesis?

A

tRNA

248
Q

Which type of RNA has a complex irregular structure?

A

rRNA

249
Q

Which nucleotide functions as an oxidizing agent during respiration?

A

NAD+

250
Q

Which nucleotide act as an oxidizing agent in photosynthesis?

A

NADP+

251
Q

What’s known as cytology?

A

Cell biology

252
Q

How many lenses does the simplest light microscope has?

A

Single lense

253
Q

What are the important parameters when it comes to a microscope?

A

Magnification, Resolution power

254
Q

What’s known as magnification in microscopy?

A

The ratio of object’s image size to its actual size

255
Q

What’s the maximum magnification of light microscope in general?

A

×1000 times the specimen

256
Q

What’s known as resolution power in microscopy?

A

Minimum distance between two points that can be distinguished as separate points
(A measure of the clarity of the image)

257
Q

What’s the resolution power of light microscope?

A

0.2um

258
Q

Magnification is limited due to […]

A

resolution

259
Q

What are the lenses of a light microscope?

A

Objective lense, eye piece

260
Q

Light microscope has a limited resolution due to which property?

A

The wavelength of light

261
Q

The resolution power is […] to the wavelength

A

inversely proportional

262
Q

Why dows electron microscope has larger magnification?

A

Because it uses a beam of electrons which has a shorter wavelength relative to light

263
Q

What’s the magnification of an electron microscope?

A

5 × 105 times

264
Q

What’s the resolution of an electron microscope?

A

2 nm

265
Q

What are the two types of electron microscopes?

A
  • Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
  • Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
266
Q

For what study does TEM is used?

A

Used to study the internal structure of the cells

267
Q

When using a TEM, a […] specimen is used and the specimens are stained with […]

A

very thin, heavy metals

268
Q

When using a SEM, specimen is mostly coated with […] prior to observation

A

gold

269
Q

For which function SEM is ideal for?

A

To observe the surface view in three-dimensional appearances

270
Q

In SEM, a fine beam of electrons is […] from the surface of specimen

A

reflected

whereas in TEM, the electron beam goes through

271
Q

What are the differences between light and electron microscopes?

A
    • Glass lenses are used to focus the light rays
    • Powerful magnets are used to focus beam of electrons
    • Image is directly detected by the naked eye
    • Micrographs are used
    • Living and non-living objects can be observed
    • Only non-living objects are observed
    • Actual color of the object can be observed
    • Actual color cannot be observed
    • Dyes used to stain the object
    • Heavy metals are used to stain the object
272
Q

What’s the basic structural and functional unit of life?

A

The cell

273
Q

Who first examined cells and coined the term “cells”?

A

Robert Hooke (1665)

274
Q

Who is the first person to describe and record living single celled organisms?

A

Anton Van Leeuwenhook (1650)

275
Q

Which single celled organisms were observed by Anton Van Leeuwenhook?

A

Euglena & Bacteria

276
Q

What was the conclusion of Matthias Schleiden after studying plant tissues?

A

All plants are made up of cells

277
Q

What was the conclusion of zoologist Theodore Schwann about cells?

A

Animal tissues are made up of cells

278
Q

What was the Rudolf Virchow’s theory about cells?

A

All cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell devision

279
Q

Who concluded that ‘animal tissues are made up of cells’?

A

Theodore Schwann

280
Q

Who showed that ‘all cells arise from pre-existing cells’?

A

Rudolf Virchow

281
Q

Who concluded that ‘all plants are made up of cells’?

A

Matthias Schleiden

282
Q

Name the scientists who presented the cell theory

A
  • Matthias Schleiden
  • Theodore Schwann
  • Rudolf Virchow
283
Q

What are the statements in cell theory?

A
  1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells
  2. The basic structural and functional unit of organisms is the cell
  3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells
284
Q

What are the two kinds of cellular organization?

A
  • Prokaryotic
  • Eukaryotic
285
Q

What are the basic features which all cells share?

A
  • All cells are bounded by a plasma membrane which is a selective barrier
  • Within the cell have, a semifluid, jelly like substance called cytosol (subcellular components are suspended within the cytosol)
  • Carry DNA as genetic materials
  • Ribosoms are found in all cells
286
Q

What’s are the organisms that belong to prokaryotes?

A

Bacteria & Archaebacteria

287
Q

What are the organisms that belong to eukaryotes?

A

Protists, Fungi, Plants, Animals

288
Q

What’s the diameter of a prokaryotic cell?

A

0.5 - 5 um

289
Q

What’s the diameter of a eukaryotic cell?

A

10 um - 100 um

290
Q

What’s the main form of prokaryotic cells?

A

Unicellular

291
Q

What’s the main form of eukaryotic cells?

A

Multicellular

292
Q

When did the evolutionary origin of prokaryotes happened?

A

3.5 billion years ago

293
Q

When did the evolutionary origin of eukaryotes happened?

A

1.8 billion years ago
(evolved form prokaryotes)

294
Q

How does a prokaryotic cell devide?

A

Binory fission
No mitosis and meiosis

295
Q

How does an eukaryotic cell devide?

A

Mitosis, Meiosis or both

296
Q

How genetic materials are stored in the prokaryotic cell?

A

Nucleoid, DNA is circular and lies free in the cytoplasm. DNA is not associated with Histone proteins

297
Q

What the region in prokaryotic cell which houses it’s free and circular DNA?

A

Nucleoid

298
Q

Which type of cell’s DNA is associated with Histone proteins?

A

Eukaryotic cell

299
Q

How genetic materials (DNA) are stored in eucaryotic cell?

A

DNA is linear and contained in nucleus.
Associated with Histone proteins

300
Q

What’s the type of ribosomes that are in prokaryotic cells?

A

70s ribosomes (smaller)

301
Q

What’s the type of ribosomes that are in eukaryotic cells?

A

Both 70s and 80s
- 70s : mitochondria and chloroplast
- 80s : larger

(may attach to ER or freely available in cytosol)

302
Q

What are the characteristics of organelles in prokaryotic cells?

A
  • No membrane bound organelles are present
  • Consists of few subcellular components
  • Internal membranes scarces
    (Usually associated with respiration, photosynthesis or N2 fixation
303
Q

Usually internal membranes are scarce in prokaryotic cells. If they do exist, they’re associated with which functions of the prokaryotic cell?

A
  • Respiration
  • Photosynthesis
  • N2 fixation
304
Q

What are the characteristics of organelles in eukaryotic cells?

A
  • Membrane bound organelles and other subcellular components are present
305
Q

What are the organelles in eukaryotic cells that are bounded by two membranes?

A
  • Nucleus
  • Mitochondria
  • Chloroplasts
306
Q

What are the organelles in eukaryotic cells that are bounded by a single membrane?

A

Lysosomes & Vacuole

307
Q

What are the structural characteristics of prokaryotic cell walls?

A
  • Peptidoglycan present in bacteria and cyanobacteria
  • Polysaccharides and protein are present in archaebacteria
308
Q

Which organism types have Peptidoglycan in their cell walls?

A

Bacteria and Cyanobacteria (Prokaryotes)

309
Q

Which type of organisms have polysaccharides and proteins in their cell wall?

A

Archaebacteria (Prokaryotic)

310
Q

Cell walls of […] and […] are rigid and contain polysaccharides

A

Green plants, fungi

311
Q

Plant cell walls are composed of […] and […]

A

Polysaccharides and cellulose

312
Q

Fungal cell walls are composed of […] and […]

A

Polysaccharides and chitin

313
Q

What are the characteristics of eukaryotic cell wall?

A
  • Cell walls of green plants and fungi are rigid
  • Contain polysaccharides
  • Plant cells have cellulose and fungal cell walls have chitin
314
Q

What’s the structure of prokaryotic flagella?

A
  • Simple
  • Lacking microtubules
  • Extracellular (Not enclosed by cell surface membrane)
  • 20 nm in diameter
315
Q

What’s the diameter of a prokaryotic flagellum?

A

20 nm

316
Q

What are the characteristics of an eukaryotic flagellum?

A
  • Complex
  • ‘9+2’ arrangement of microtubules
  • Intracellular (Sorrounded by cell surface membrane)
  • 200 nm in diameter
317
Q

What’s the diameter of an eukaryotic flagellum?

A

200 nm (10x the prokaryotic diameter)

318
Q

How does respiration occur in prokaryotic cells?

A

Mostly by internal membrane foldings

319
Q

How does respiration occur in eukaryotic cells?

A

Mitochondria for aerobic respiration

320
Q

What are the photosynthesis related characteristics of prokaryotic cells?

A
  • No chloroplasts
  • Takes place on membranes which shows no stacking
321
Q

How’s the photosynthetic process carried out in eukaryotic cell?

A

Chloroplast containing membranes which are usually stacked in to lamellae or grana

322
Q

Which cell type has the ability to fixate nitrogen?

A

Some prokaryotic cells

323
Q

Does eukaryotes has the ability to fixate nitrogen?

A

No

324
Q

Which domains belon to prokaryotes?

A

Bacteria and archaea

325
Q

What’s the outer limit of cytoplasm?

A

Plasma membrane

326
Q

All cellular membranes resemble the ultra structure of […]

A

Plasma membrane

327
Q

Who came up with the fluid mosaic model (1972) of cell membrane?

A

Singer and Nicolson

328
Q

What’s the most abundant type of lipid in the plasma membrane?

A

Phospholipid

329
Q

What are fluid mosaic model of cell membrane is composed of?

A
  • Phospholipids
  • Proteins
330
Q

What are the features of the plasma membrane?

A
  • ~7nm in thickness
  • Mainly made up of phospholipid bilayer
  • Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules
331
Q

Explain the orientation of phospholipids in plasma membrane

A
  • Hydrophilic heads of the phospholipids face outwards towards the aqueous environment of both inside and outside of the cell
  • The hydrophic carbon tails face inwards and creates a hydrophobic interior
332
Q

Plasma membrane is compared to the […]

A

Fluid mosaic model

333
Q

What are integral proteins?

A

Protein molecules that are randomly embedded in the plasma membrane to contribute to it’s mosaic nature

IMP : Intergral Membrane Proteins

334
Q

Name the two types of IMPs

A
  • Transmembrane proteins
  • Peripheral proteins
335
Q

What are transmembrane proteins?

A

Intergral proteins which penetrate all the way through the plasma membrane

336
Q

What are Peripheral proteins?

A

Intergral proteins which are losly bound to the surface of the plasma membrane
(Not embedded in the lipid bilayer)

337
Q

What are glycoproteins?

A

Proteins with a short branching carbohydrate chains like antennae

(aka Glycopeptides)

any of a class of proteins which havecarbohydrategroups attached to thepolypeptidechain
- Oxford Dict.

338
Q

What are glycolipids?

A

Lipids with short branching carbohydrate chains like antennae

Glycolipids arelipids with a carbohydrate attached by a glycosidic bond

339
Q

Animal cell membrane may contain few […] randomly integrated into the phospholipid bilayer

A

Cholesterol molecules

340
Q

What’s the function of cholesterol in the plasma membrane?

A

Providing rigidity and stability

341
Q

Write down functions of the plasma membrane

A
  1. Separating the intra and extracellular environments of the living cell
  2. Regulating the exchange of material due to selective permeability
  3. Proteins in the plasma membrane enable cell recognition
  4. Some proteins in the plasma membrane act as receptor molecules for specific biochemicals
  5. Some proteins in the plasma membrane help maintain the shape of the cell
  6. Some proteins in the plasma membrane act as enzymes
  • Plasma membrane sorround the cytoplasm of living cell, physically separating the Intracellular environment from the extracellular environment
  • Plasma membrane is selectively permeable and able to regulate the exchange of material needed for survival
  • Proteins embedded in the plasma membrane identify the cell, enabling nearby cells to communicate with each other (cell recognition)
  • Some proteins act as receptor molecules for interacting with specific bio chemicals (hormones, neurotransmitters and immune proteins)
  • Some proteins in the cell membrane attach to cytoskeletal fibers and help to main the cell shape
  • Some proteins in the membrane act as enzymes (Eg: Microvillus on epithelial cell lining of the gut contains digestive enzymes in their cell surface membrane)
342
Q

What’s the average diameter of a nucleus?

A

5 um

343
Q

By which structure the nucleus is enclosed in?

A

Nuclear envelope

344
Q

Which parts does the nuclear envelope is composed of?

A
  • Inner membrane
  • Outter membrane
  • Nuclear pores
345
Q

What’s te space between inner and outter membrane of the nucleus?

A

20 - 40 nm

346
Q

Which structure regulates the entry and exit of substances to the nucleus?

A

Nuclear pores (w/ pore complex)

347
Q

Which structure lines the interior side of the nuclear envelope?

A

Nuclear lamina

348
Q

Nuclear lamina is made up of?

A

Protein filaments

349
Q

Nuclear matrix is made up of?

A

Protein filaments

350
Q

[…] and […] are embedded throughout the nucleus

A

Chromatin, nucleolus

351
Q

What’s nucleolus?

A

An area of the nucleus which appears as darkly stained granules with fibers adjoining part of the chromatin

352
Q

What’s chromatin?

A

A diffused DNA and protein complex in the nuclear matrix

353
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

Tightly coiled and threaded chromatins during the cell devision

354
Q

What are the functions of the nucleus?

A
  • Control all cell activities
  • Synthesize DNA to produce new nuclei for cell devisions
  • Synthesize rRNAs and ribosomal subunits required for protein synthesis (by nucleolus)
  • Synthesize mRNA and tRNA according to the information present on DNA
  • Store and transport of genetic information
355
Q

What are ribosomes?

A

Subcellular components which carry out protein synthesis

356
Q

What are the subunits of ribosomes?

A
  • Larger subunit
  • Smaller subunit
357
Q

What are the two types of ribosomes?

A
  • 70s and 80s
358
Q

Where is the 70s ribosomes are located in?

A
  • Cytoplasm of prokaryotes
  • Mitochondrial matrix
  • Stroma of chloroplasts
359
Q

80s ribosomes are in which type of cells?

A

Eukaryotic cells

360
Q

What are the two types of 80s ribosomes based on the nature of their presence?

A
  • Free ribosomes
  • Bound ribosomes
361
Q

What are free ribosomes?

A

Ribosomes which are freely available in the cytoplasm

362
Q

What are bound ribosomes?

A

Ribosomes which are attached to the membrane surface of rough ER

363
Q

What’s the function of ribosomes?

A

Protein synthesis

364
Q

What’s endoplasmic reticulum?

A

A network of internal membranes forming flattened or tubular sacs separating cytosol from ER lumen

365
Q

Rough ER consists of […] and […] bound to surface

A

Flattened sacs, ribosomes

366
Q

Where do proteins synthesized by ribosomes move in rough ER?

A

In to the lumen of ER

367
Q

What are the functions of rough ER?

A
  • Transport proteins synthesized by bound ribosomes
  • Synthesizing glycoproteins
  • Produce transport vesicles
  • Synthesize membrane phospholipids
  • Facilitate the growth of own membrane by adding phospholipids, proteins and carbohydrates
368
Q

What’s called the membrane factory of the cell?

A

Rough ER

369
Q

What’s smooth ER?

A

A network of tubular sacs without ribosomes

370
Q

In smooth ER, membrane bound […] are present

A

Enzymes

371
Q

What are the functions of smooth ER?

A
  • Synthesize lipids (Oils, steroids & phospholipids)
  • Metabolism of carbs
  • Produce transport vesicles to transport within cell
  • Involves in detoxification
  • Stores Ca2+ ions
372
Q

Which organelle produces transport vesicles to transport within the cell?

A

Smooth ER

373
Q

Name the organelle that’s involved in storing Ca2+ ions

A

Smooth ER

374
Q

Which organelle is involved in carb metabolism?

A

Smooth ER

375
Q

What’s golgi apparatus?

A

A stacks of flattened sacs or cisternae

376
Q

What’s the inner face of golgi apparatus?

A

Cis face

Located near the ER to receive vesicles

377
Q

What’s the outter face of golgi apparatus?

A

Trans face

378
Q

Trans face of golgi apparatus give rise to […] which bud off and travel to the other side

A

Secretory vesicles

379
Q

In which type of cells golgi apparatus is abundant?

A

Secretory cells

380
Q

What’s are the functions of the golgi apparatus?

A
  • Collecting, modifying, packaging and distribution of materials (Proteins & membrane lipids)
  • Manufacturing cellulose and other non-cellular cell wall components (pectin)
  • Producing lysosomes
381
Q

Which cellular organelle produces lysosomes?

A

Golgi apparatus

382
Q

What are lysosomes?

A

Single membrane bounded vesicles contributing to digestive activity

383
Q

How do lysosomes contribute to digestive activity?

A

Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes which catalyze the breakdown of carbs, proteins, lipids and nuclear acids

384
Q

Lysosomes are capable of digesting […]

A

Carbs, proteins, lipids, minerals

(All 4 types of bio-molecules)

385
Q

What are the functions of lysosomes?

A
  • Digest food particles received by phagocytosis
  • Transport residue material out of by exocytosis
  • Digest worn out organelles
  • Autolysis causing cell death
386
Q

Which organelle is responsible for transporting residue material out of the cell?

A

Lysosomes

387
Q

What are peroxisomes?

A

Single membrane bound vesicles with oxidizing enzymes

388
Q

Enzymes in peroxisomes catalyzes the breakdown of […]

A

H2O2

389
Q

What are the functions of peroxisomes?

A
  • Detoxification of peroxides
  • Photorespiration in plants
390
Q

What are specialized peroxisomes which found in fat storing cells of plants?

A

Glyoxysomes

391
Q

What’s the the function of glyoxysomes?

A

Converting fatty acids into sugar

392
Q

The inner membrane of mitochondria is convoluted to form […]. It increases the surface area

A

Cristae

393
Q

What are inside the mitochondrial matrix?

A
  • 70s ribosomes
  • Circular DNA
  • Phosphate granules
  • Enzymes
394
Q

The mitochondrial matrix carries the enzymes for […]

A

Krebs cycle (cellular respiration)

395
Q

Cristae composed of proteins and enzymes are important for […] and […]

A

Electron transport chain, Oxidative phosphorylation

396
Q

Whata are the functions of mitochondria?

A
  • Synthesize ATP in aerobic respiration
  • Involves in photorespiration
397
Q

What’s the shape of the chloroplast?

A

Bi-convex

398
Q

What are thylakoids?

A

Flattened and interconnected sacs produced by a membrane system inside the chloroplast

399
Q

By which structure the grana are interconnected?

A

Inter granal lamallae

400
Q

What contains in the stroma of chloroplast?

A
  • 70s ribosomes
  • Circular DNA (chloroplast DNA)
  • Many enzymes
  • Starch granules and lipid droplets
401
Q

What are the functions of the chloroplast?

A

Photosynthesis

402
Q

What’s the cytoskeleton?

A

The supporting structure of the cell and maintains it’s shape

403
Q

Cytoskeleton is made out of […] and […]

A

Microtubules, protein filaments

404
Q

What are the three types of cytoskeletal components?

A
  • Microtubules
  • Actin filaments / Microfilaments
  • Intermediate filaments
405
Q

What’s the structure of microtubules?

A
  • Hollow tubes
  • Wall consist of 13 columns of tubulin molecules
406
Q

What’s the protein subunit of microtubules?

A

Tubulin

407
Q

What’s the structure of microfilaments?

A
  • Two intertwined strands of actin (each strand is a polymer if actin subunits)
408
Q

What’s the protein subunit of microfilaments?

A

Actin

409
Q

What’s the structure of intermediate filaments?

A

Fibrous proteins supercoiled into thicker cables

410
Q

What are the protein subunits of intermediate filaments?

A

One of several different proteins depending on the cell type
eg: Keratin

411
Q

What are the functions of cytoskeleton

A
  • Provide strength to the cytoplasm
  • Maintain the shape of the cell
  • Anchorage organelles and cytosolic enzymes of the cell
  • Movement of cytoplasm, cytoplasmic streaming, positioning orgenells and move chromosomes when necessary
412
Q

Flagella are […] structures and cilia are […] that are often organized in […]

A

Long elongated, short cellular projections, rows

413
Q

Which component is cilia and flagella made of?

A

Microtubules

414
Q

What’s the structure of a cillium / flagellum?

A

9+2 structure

415
Q

What’s the structure (microtubule arrangement) of basal body of cillium / flagella?

A

9 + 0
No center microtubules

416
Q

What’s 9 + 2 structure?

A

Nine doublets of microtubules arranged in a ring, with two single microtubules in the center

417
Q

which structure cilia and flagella bound to?

A

Basal body

418
Q

What’s the function of the basal body (cilia and flagella)

A

Anchoring cilium or flagellum to the cell

419
Q

Cilia and flagella are covered by […]

A

Plasma membrane

420
Q

What are the functions of cilia and flagella?

A
  • Acts as locomote appendages
  • Can move fluid over the surface of the tissue
  • Cilia lining in oviducts help move an egg towards the uterus
421
Q

What’s the structure of centrioles?

A

Centriole is made up of cylindrically arranged microtubules, which has nine sets of triplet microtubules (9 + 0). A pair of centrioles are arranged perpendicularly and are located in a region near the nucleus called centrosome.

422
Q

Which cellular strucrure is composed of [9(x3) + 0] structure?

A

Centrioles

423
Q

Centrioles are only present in […]

A

Animal cells

424
Q

Where is the perpendicularly arranged centriole pair is located?

A

In an area called centrosome near the nucleus

425
Q

What’s the function of centrioles?

A
  • Produce aster and spindle in cell devision
426
Q

Central vacuole is a large structure, bound by […]

A

Tonoplast

427
Q

What’s the liquid inside the central vacuole is called?

A

Cell sap
(differs from cytosol)

428
Q

What are the compounds / materials found in cell sap (inside the central vacuole)?

A
  • Water
  • Ions (Pottasium, Chloride)
  • Water soluble colored pigments (anthocyanin)
429
Q

What are the two other types of vacuoles other than the central vacuole?

A
  • Food vacuole
  • Contractile vacuole
430
Q

What are the functions of the vacuoles?

A
  • Stores water and other materials such as sugars, ions and pigments
  • Gives turgidity and support to the cell
  • Maintains water balance of the cell (osmoregulation)
  • Produce colors in some plants with sap pigments
  • Helps in digestion
431
Q

What’s osmoregulation?*

A

Osmoregulation is the process by which an organism regulates the water and electrolytic balance in its body to maintain homeostasis.

432
Q

What’s anthocyanin?*

A

Anthocyanins, also called anthocyans, are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH, may appear red, purple, blue, or black.

Classification: Flavonoid, Anthocyanidin

433
Q

Which cell types have a thin and flexible cell wall?

A

Prakaryotes, Fungi & some protists

434
Q

What are the components that plant cell made of?

A
  • Cellulose
  • Hemicellulose
  • Pectin
  • Lignin & suberin in some plant cells
435
Q

What are two types of cell walls that is generated by the plant cell?

A

Primary and secondary walls

436
Q

Young cells first secrete […], it’s the wall laid down during […]

A

Primary cell wall, plant cell devision

437
Q

Which structure is outside of the primary cell wall?

A

Middle lamellae

438
Q

What’s pectin?*

A

Pectin, along with cellulose and hemicellulose, is a major component of the primary cell wall, accounting for up to 35% of primary cell walls in dicots and non-graminaceous monocots. Due to its abundance in the middle lamellae, pectin was initially considered to function primarily inintercellular adhesion

439
Q

What are the components of middle lamallae?

A

Magnesium and calcium pecate

440
Q

What’s the function of middle lamella?

A

Gluing the adjacent cells together

441
Q

What forms the secondary cell wall?

A

Deposition of hardening substances on the primary wall

442
Q

What are the characteristics of the primary cell wall?

A
  • Permeable
  • Realtively thin
  • Flexible
  • Composed mainly of cellulose fibers
  • Deposited on the middle lamella
443
Q

Secondary wall lies between […] and […]

A

Primary cell wall, plasma membrane

444
Q

In addition to cellulose, impermeable substances such as […] and […] are also incorporated into the secondary cell wall

A

Lignin, suberin

445
Q

What’s the function of lignin in the secondary cell wall?

A

Lignin cement anchors cellulose fibers together providing hard and rigid matrix

446
Q

What’s plasmodesmata?

A

Pits in plant cell wall through which cytoplasm of adjoing cells join

447
Q

What are the functions of cell wall?

A
  • Protection and support
  • Allows development of turgidity when water enters the cell
  • Prevents bursting due to turgidity
  • Limits and controls cell growth
  • Maintaining cell shape
  • Hold the plant upright against the force of gravity
  • Component of appoplast pathway
448
Q

Appoplast pathway*

A

The apoplastic movement of water occurs exclusivelythrough the intercellular spaces and the walls of the cells, depending on the water gradient.

449
Q

What are the three type of cell junctions in animal cells?

A
  1. Tight junctions
  2. Desmosomes / Anchor junctions
  3. Gap junctions / Communicating junctions
450
Q

What’s a tight cell junction?

A

Cell junction which connects the plasma membranes of adjacent cells tightly bound by specific proteins forming continuous seals around the cell

451
Q

What’s the function of tight junction?

A

Preventing leakages of extracellular fluids through intercellular space

452
Q

Give some examples for cells with tight junctions

A
  • Skin epithelium
  • Bladder walls
  • Intestines

Epithelia in general (organ linings, skin, blood vessels)

453
Q

What’s are desmosomes/ anchor junctions?

A

Cell junctions which mechanically attach the cytoskeleton of adjoining cells by intermediate filaments

454
Q

What’s the function of desmosomes? (Anchor junctions)

A

Desmosomes pin adjacent cells together, ensuring that cells in organs and tissues that strech, such as skin and cardiac muscle, remain connected in an unbroken sheet

455
Q

Where can we find desmosomes?

A

Muscle tissue

456
Q

What are gap/ communicating junctions?

A

Cell junctions which provide cytoplasmic channels form one cell to an adjacent cell

457
Q

What’s the function of gap/ communicating junctions?

A

Allowing signal and material exchange between adjacent cells through direct connections

458
Q

Where can we see gap junctions?

A

Cardiac tissue, animal embryo

459
Q

Which materials can be oaased through a gap junction?

A

Ions, sugar, amino acids

460
Q

What’s plasmodesmata?

A

Microscopic channels which runs through plant cell walls and are cytoplasmic living connections between cytoplasm of adjoining cells

461
Q

What are the main components of ECM of animal cells?

A

Glycoproteins & other carbohydrates containing molecules

462
Q

What’s the most abundant glycoprotein in the animal ECM?

A

Collagen
Forms strong fibers outside of the cell

463
Q

The collagen fibres are embedded in a network woven out of […] secreted by cells

A

Proteoglycan

464
Q

Collagen fibers are connected to the […] of plasma membrane via fibronectin

A

Integrin (an integral protein that connects ECM fibers to the cell)

465
Q

By which structure the collagen fibers in ECM are connected to the plasma membrane?

A

Fibronectin

466
Q

What are the functions of ECM of animal cells?

A
  • Forms a protective layer over the cell surface
  • Linking ECM and cytoskeleton
  • Influences the cell behavior by involving in the mechanical and chemical cell signaling
467
Q

What’s cell cycle?

A

The sequence of events that takes place in the life of a cell from end of one cell devision to the end of next cell devision

468
Q

What’s are the two major phases of eukaryotic cell cycle?

A
  • Interphase
  • Mitotic phase/ M phase
469
Q

What’s the longest phase of the cell cycle?

A

Interphase
(~90% of cell cycle)

470
Q

What are the phases of interphase?

A
  • G1 phase
  • S phase
  • G2 phase
471
Q

What happens in G1 phase? (first gap phase / Growth1)

A
  • Synthesis of proteins and production of cellular organelles leading to cell growth
  • Producing proteins essential for S phase
472
Q

What happens in S phase(synthetic phase)?

A
  • DNA replication
  • Synthesis of histone proteins
    DNA wind around histone beads and form chromatin
473
Q

What happens in G2 phase?

A
  • Synthesizing essential proteins for mitotic phase
  • Duplication of centrosomes
474
Q

In which phases of mitosis are there cell cycle controlling checkpoints?

A
  • G1 phase
  • G2 phase
  • M phase
475
Q

What’s the non-deviding stage of cells?

A

G0 Phase

476
Q

What’s the phase of cells which have exited the cell cycle?

A

G0 Phase

477
Q

Most cells of the human body are in […] phase

A

G0

478
Q

What are the examples of cells in G0 phase?

A

Nerve cells, muscle cells

479
Q

What are the phases of mitotic phase / M-phase?

A
  • Mitosis
  • Cytokinesis

M phase covers ~10% of the cell cycle

480
Q

What’s mitosis?

A

The nuclear division which gives rise to two genetically identical daughter nuclei from a mother nucleus

481
Q

What’s are the phases of mitosis?

A
  • Prophase
  • Prometaphase
  • Metaphase
  • Anaphase
  • Telophase

Acronym : PPMAT

482
Q

What happens in prophase?

A
  • Chromatin fibers transformed into chromosomes
  • Chromosomes appear with two sister chromatids attached at the centromere
  • Nucleoli disappears
  • Beginning the formation of mitotic spindle
  • Centrosomes move towards the opposite poles of the cell due to the lengthening of microtubules between them
483
Q

Chromosomal arms of sister chromatids are attached by special proteins called […]

A

Cohesin

484
Q

Spindle is formed by accumulated microtubules complex which includes […], […] and […]

A

Centrosomes, spindle microtubules, aster (star shaped microtubules)

485
Q

In which cells are centrosomes and centrioles absent?

A

Plant cells

486
Q

Centrosomes move toward opposite poles of the cell due to?

A

Lengthening of microtubules between each centrosome

487
Q

What happens in prometaphase?

A
  • Nuclear envelope fragments
  • Chromosomes get even more condensed
  • kinetochore protein attaches the sister chromatids of each chromosome at their centromere
  • Microtubules which are not attached with kinetochore interact with microtubules from the opposite pole
488
Q

Which proteins are associated with centromere of chromosomes?

A

Cohesin (prophase) & Kinetochore (prometaphase)

489
Q

What happens in metaphase?

A
  • Centromes reach opposite poles (done)
  • Chromosomes have arrived to metaphase plate
  • At the end of metaphase, each chromosome get attached to kinetochore microtubule and aligned at the metaphase plate
490
Q

What happens in anaphase?

A
  • Sister chromatids are separated at the centromere
  • Cell elongates as non-kinetochore microtubules get lengthened
  • By the end of anaphase, equal and complete set of chromosomes are found at each pole of the cell
491
Q

What happens in telophase?

A
  • Nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes near the poles
  • Spindle microtubules get depolymerized
  • Chromosomes unwinds and become less condense to form chromatin
  • Two genetically identical daughter nuclei are formed
492
Q

In which phase does the division of cytoplasm occur?

A

At the end of telophase
(w/ a little overlap)

493
Q

Which structure forms during the cytokenesis of animal cells?

A

Cleavage furrow

494
Q

How do plant cells divide their cytoplasm in cytokenesis?

A

A cell plate form as a result of vesicles produced by golgi apparatus, these vesicles divide cytoplasm in to two.

495
Q

What are the significances of mitosis?

A
  1. Maintains genetic stability
  2. Growth and development
  3. Cell repair, replacement and regeneration
  4. Asexual reproduction
496
Q

In which phase does duplication of centrosomes takes place?

A

G2 phase

497
Q

In which phase does DNA replication occur?

A

S phase

498
Q

In which phase does synthesis of histone proteins takes place?

A

S phase

499
Q

In which phase does DNA wind around histone beads to form chromatin?

A

S phase

500
Q

In which phase does chromatin gets condensed into chromosomes?

A

Prophase

501
Q

Chromosomes become visible to light microscope in […]

A

Prophase

502
Q

In which phase does nucleoli disappear and chromosomes appear with two sister chromatids attached at the centromere?

A

Prophase

503
Q

What’s the function of protein cohesin?

A

Attaching chromosomal arms of sister chromatids together

504
Q

In which phase does formation of mitotic spindles begin?

A

Prophase

505
Q

In which phase does nuclear envelope fragments?

A

Prometaphase

506
Q

In which phase does kinetochore protein gets attached to sister chromatids of each chromosome at their centromere?

A

Prometaphase

507
Q

In which phase do centrosomes reach the opposite poles?

A

Metaphase

508
Q

In which phase does chromosomes arrive at metaphase plate?

A

Metaphase

509
Q

In which phase does each chromosome get attached to kinetochore microtubule at their centromere and are aligned at the metaphase plate?

A

Metaphase

510
Q

In which phase do sister chromatids gets separated?

A

Anaphase

511
Q

In which phase does the cell lengthen as kinetochore microtubules gets shorter and non-kinetochore microtubules gets longer?

A

Anaphase

512
Q

What we can see after the end of anaphase?

A

An equal and complete set of chromosomes at the each pole of the cell

513
Q

In which phase does the nuclear envelope reforms?

A

Telophase?

514
Q

In which phase do spindle microtubules gets depolymerized?

A

Telophase

515
Q

In which phase does chromosomes unwind to become less dense and form chromatin?

A

Telophase

516
Q

What we can see at the end of telophase?

A

Two genetically identical daughter nuclei

517
Q

What the end result of mitosis?

A

Production of two genetically identical daughter cells

518
Q

The cell plates which devide the plant cell in cytokenesis form as a result of […]

A

Vesicles produces by golgi apparatus

Biology (2 decks)

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