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1
Q

Trait Approach

A

How people differ psychologically

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2
Q

Biological Approach

A

Understanding the mind in terms of the body

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3
Q

Psychoanalytic approach

A

Focusing on the unconscious mind and internal mental conflict

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4
Q

Phenomenological Approach

A

Focusing on people’s conscious experience of the world
- Humanistic: how conscious awareness produces uniquely human attributes
- Cross-cultural: how the experience of reality differs across culture

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5
Q

Learning and Cognitive Processes Approach

A
  • Learning: how behavior changes as a result of rewards, punishments, and other life experiences
  • Social learning: how observation and self-evaluation determine behavior
  • Cognitive personality: focusing on cognitive processes (e.g., perception, memory, thought) to explain behavior
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6
Q

Accounting for the whole person and real-life concerns

A

Pros: Inclusive, intersting, and important

Cons: Overwhelming, difficult to manage, research can easily become unfocused or overly inclusive

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7
Q

Addressing focal research questions through separate paradigms/ basic approaches

A

Pros: each approach is specifically geared towards addressing the questions that it choose to address

Cons: each approach is ill-equipped to address other questions or ignores them altogether

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8
Q

Emphasis on Individual Differences

A

Pros: sensitivity and respect for individual differences; deeper understanding (other areas treat individual differences as error)

Cons: pigeonholing people

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9
Q

Realistic-accuracy Model

A

States that accurate personality judgement depend on an individual’s personality trait and a judge’s correct judgement of that trait

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10
Q

Self-other Agreement

A

The degree of which observers agree with an individual’s self personality judgement

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11
Q

Other-other Agreement

A

How much observers agree in their judgements of the same person

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12
Q

Personality Prediction Heading

A

Algorithms can categorize and identify clusters of co-occurring behaviors among a set of digital traces (facial recognition, language, purchasing habits etc)

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13
Q

Why Personality Research Methods are Necessary and Nifty

A
  • Personality data seek to cover all parts of the psychological triad (thoughts, feelings, behaviors)

Funder’s Second Law: “There are no perfect indicators of personality; there are only clues, and clues are always ambiguous”
- Gather as many clues as possible and put them together

Funder’s Third Law: “Something beats nothing, two times out of three”

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14
Q

Four Kind of Clues (BLIS)

A
  • Ask the person directly: self-reports (S data)
  • Ask someone who knows: informants’ reports (I data)
  • Obtain real-life facts: life outcomes (L data)
  • Watch what the person does: behavioral data (B data)
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15
Q

S data: Self-Reports

A

Advantages
- Large amount of information
- Access to thoughts, feelings, and intentions
- Some S data are true by definition (self-esteem)
- Causal force
- Simple and easy

Disadvantages
- Error
- Bias
- Too simple and too easy

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16
Q

Self-other Agreement

A

The degree of which observers agree with an individual’s self personality judgement

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17
Q

I data: informants’ reports

A

Advantages
- Large amount of information
- Real-world basis
- Common sense
- Some I data are true by definition
- Causal force

Disadvantages
- Limited behavioral information
- Lack of access to private experience
- Error
- Bias

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18
Q

L data: Life outcomes

A

Advantages
- Objective and verifiable
- Intrinsic importance
- Psychological relevance

Disadvantages
- Multi-determination
- Possible lack of psychological relevance

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19
Q

B data: Behavioral Observations

A

Two forms of B data
- Natural data (based on real life) - Realistic (what people actually do in their lives)
- Laboratory B data (based on behavior in a lab)
- Pros: no need to wait for desired contexts, appearance of objectivity
- Cons: Difficult and expensive, uncertain interpretation and generalizability

Advantages
- Wide range of contexts (both real and contrived)
- Appearance of objectivity

Disadvantages
- Difficult and expensive
- Uncertain interpretation

20
Q

Aspects of Data Quality

A

Reliability: do the data consistently measure whatever it is that they measure

Validity: do the data accurately measure what they purport to measure

Generalizability: do the findings from these data apply to other data, situations, or people

21
Q

Personality Research Design

A
  1. Case method: deep dive on one particular event or person in order to find out as much as possible
  2. Experimental method: finds causal relationship between IV and DV by assigning participants to experimental groups (finding average behavior)
  3. Correlational method
    - Scatter plot: chart on which each point represents an individual’s scores on two variables
    - Correlation coefficient: reflects the strength and the direction of the relationship
22
Q

Psychodynamic approach

A

Idea that people’s behavior is driven by processes that they are not aware of and that they cannot access

23
Q

Projective Tests

A

Important thoughts, feelings, and motives operate outside of conscious awareness

Pros
- Good ice breaker to get clients to open up
- Rorschach: when scored according to specific techniques, some utility for prediction of outcomes
- TAT: some evidence for assessment of implicit motives

Cons
- Scarce validity evidence
- Expensive and time-consuming
- No objectivity: unclear what they really mean
- Other, less expensive tests work as well or better

Projective Hypothesis: if a person is asked to describe or interpret ambiguous stimuli their responses will be influenced by non-conscious needs, feelings, and experiences

24
Q

Rorschach Inkblots

A

Individuals are asked to interpret symmetrical blots of ink

25
Q

Thematic Apperception Test (TATs)

A

Individuals are asked to tell a story based on a a series of ambiguous picture

  • What they see is not actually on the card/ in the pictures, but reflects the contents of their mind
  • Projective tests are still frequently used
26
Q

Objective Tests

A
  • Personality tests that are more objective and less open to interpretation
  • Test consist of a list of questions to be answered using a limited set of response options
  • Responses to these items then are scored in a standardized, predetermined way
  • Their response can be based on their subjective experience on the scale of objective answers
27
Q

Principle of Aggregation

A

average answers to multiple items decreases error and increases stability and reliability

28
Q

Constructing Objective Personality Tests

A

Rational method: write items that seem directly, obviously, and rationally related to what is to be measured

Factor analytic method: select items that group together by using factor analysis - a statistical technique that identifies clusters of things that have something in common

Empirical method: identify items based on how people in predetermined groups respond

29
Q

The “I” & the “Me”

A

Me = part of the self that is observed and described (epistemological self)

I = part of the self that does the observing and describing (ontological self)

30
Q

Contents of the Self: Declarative knowledge

A

Facts and impressions of ourselves that we consciously know and can describe
- Self-esteem: evaluation of one’s own worth as a person (the extent to which someone feels that they are worthy and good)
- Self-schema: all of one’s ideas about the Self organized into a coherent system

31
Q

Contents of the Self: Procedural knowledge

A

Knowledge expressed through actions rather than words

Relational self: Self-knowledge based on past experiences that directs how we relate to the important people in our lives

Implicit self: We have attitudes, feelings, and opinions about many things of which we are not fully aware
- Relational selves and implicit selves may work unconsciously

32
Q

Self-Esteem Outcomes

A

Low self-esteem
- Depression, dissatisfaction, loneliness, hopelessness, delinquency

High self-esteem
- Relationship quality social network size, social support, physical health, mental health, job success, work satisfaction

Too high self-esteem
- Arrogance, abusive behavior, criminal behavior, narcissism, narcissistic personality disorder

33
Q

Social Media & Self-Esteem

A
  • Overall small negative effects of social media usage on self-esteem
  • Negative effects tend to be stronger in (1) women, (2) eastern cultures
  • Effects depends on (1) how the user engages with social media content, (2) the nature of the content, and (3) the user’s psychological characteristics
  • Social upward comparison: hurts self esteem/positive feedback from network size etc
34
Q

Roles & Tasks of the Self

A

3 Roles
- Social actor who seeks to maintain social approval while being oneself
- Motivated agent who strive to achieve goals, plans, projects
- Autobiographical actor who reconstructs the past and imagines the future to create a coherent life story that offers continuity and purpose

4 tasks:
- Self-regulation
- Information-processing filter
- Relate to others
- Foster sense of identity

35
Q

Self-Reference and Memory

A

Long-term memory (LTM): permanent memory storage; elaboration is useful for moving information to LTM

Self-Reference effect: information that gets linked to the self shows
- Enhanced long-term memory
- Increased accessibility
- Variation across cultures

36
Q

Self-Efficacy

A

A person’s belief in their capacity to succeed in a specific task
- Sets the limits for what we attempt to do

37
Q

Actual & Desired Selves

A

Actual self = who you really are

Ideal self = who you would like to be

Ought self = who you should be

38
Q

Self-Discrepancy Theory

A
  • Actual self ≠ ideal self: depression (because of disappointment at failing to achieve plans)
  • Actual self ≠ ought self: anxiety (because of fear at being punished by others)
39
Q

The Really Real Self

A

People believe that beneath all the different forms of self there must be one single “real” self that ties it all together

The core, unchanging self:
- External appearances, attitudes, and behaviorrs change across situations and over time, but the one who does the experiencing of life is still the same
- The I is unaltered as the Me is changed

40
Q

Realistic-Accuracy Model (RADU)

A
  1. Relevance: cues that are relevant to the trait being judged
  2. Availability: evidence available for the cue
  3. Detect: the cues has to be detected
  4. Utilization: use those cues to make the personality judgement
41
Q

How People Differ Psychologically

A

Absolute vs Relative Consistency
- Individual differences are maintained across situations, even when absolute behavior changes
- Situations influence behavior, but people are still consistent
- Personality affects and predicts important life outcomes and its effects accumulate over entire lifespans

The Trait Approach: personality trait = the necessary, basic concept for measuring and understanding individual differences

42
Q

Interactionism

A
  • People create their situations based on their personality
  • Individuals select situations based on their personalities and the situations they spend time in - in turn - affect their personalities

Social situations: who we are around also affects how we behave

Cultural situations: language impacts our personalities

Strong situations: situations may override the impact of personality

43
Q

Personality Judgement

A
  • The judgements others make of us amount to the reputation that we have
  • These judgement influence our lives in the social world, whether they are accurate

Expectancies
- Others’ judgements can also affect people through self-fulfilling prophecies
- When people expect someone to be a certain way, they treat that person in a way that then elicits reactions that confirm their expectations

44
Q

The Pygmalion Effect

A

Out expectations of someone alter how we view their behavior

45
Q

Convergent Validation

A

Process of assembling diverse pieces of information that converge on a common conclusion

  • Interjudge agreement (degree to which different people form the same impression)
  • Behavioral prediction (degree to which judgement can predict actual behavior)
46
Q

Self-Personality Judgement

A

People tend to:
- (1) attribute their own behaviorr to the situation
- (2) assume that others would have done the same thing

PSYC 305 (3 decks)

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